Teenagers don’t just influence each other – they learn from each other

Why are adolescents so sensitive to their peers’ behaviour? And is this sensitivity necessarily negative, as the term peer pressure often implies? In his PhD dissertation, UvA behavioural scientist Andrea Gradassi demonstrates that adolescents are particularly influenced by classmates to whom they are socially close, such as friends, as well as by peers who occupy high-status positions within the classroom social network.

‘The goal of this dissertation was to examine peer influence, particularly during adolescence,’ Gradassi explains. ‘Traditionally, psychology has tended to frame peer influence at this stage of life as passive and harmful.’

Gradassi challenges this narrow perspective by asking a more fundamental question: why are adolescents so responsive to their peers in the first place? From an evolutionary standpoint, learning from others is highly adaptive. Observing peers allows individuals to avoid costly trial-and-error learning. As Gradassi puts it: ‘If you look at what your peers are doing and they are successful, that behaviour may also be useful for you.’

Real experiments in the classroom

A distinctive feature of Gradassi’s research is its grounding in realistic social environments. Rather than relying solely on laboratory settings, he conducted experiments in Dutch secondary schools.

‘We went into schools and mapped the relationships among students,’ he explains. Using social network analysis, Gradassi identified friendships, popular students and socially central figures within each classroom. These data were then used to design experiments that measured peer influence systematically.

In one study, students completed tasks such as estimating the number of animals in an image. After submitting their initial response, they were shown the answer of a selected classmate and given the opportunity to revise their own.

The findings were clear: adolescents were more strongly influenced by friends than by socially distant classmates. ‘When the other person was a friend, students adjusted their answers more,’ Gradassi notes. This suggests that classroom learning is shaped not only by accuracy, but also by social closeness and trust.

Social status also played a significant role. Adolescents were more likely to incorporate information from peers who occupied central positions in the social network—students who were well connected and socially prominent.

Importantly, influence extended beyond popularity alone. Peers perceived as academically competent also exerted greater influence on others’ learning decisions. Together, these findings demonstrate that educational outcomes are shaped not only by individual ability, but also by the structure of social relationships within the classroom.

Older adolescents respond to more positive influence

One of the most striking findings in Gradassi’s dissertation concerns prosocial behaviour. In a large-scale study involving 456 Dutch adolescents, participants were given the option to donate money to charity or keep it for themselves. Based on prevailing theories, Gradassi expected selfish behaviour to increase with age.

Instead, the data revealed the opposite pattern: more responsive to positive peer influence. ‘When older adolescents saw someone donating money, they were more likely than younger adolescents to follow that example,’ Gradassi explains.

These findings suggest that peer influence can be a force for good. Positive role models may become increasingly influential during later adolescence, highlighting opportunities to harness peer dynamics in constructive ways.

Social networks and social media

Gradassi’s findings are particularly relevant in an era in which social influence is amplified online. Social media platforms continuously map social connections and can intensify peer dynamics.

Understanding who influences whom—and under what circumstances—is therefore crucial for educators, policymakers and adolescents themselves. ‘It is important to inform the public about how these social dynamics operate,’ Gradassi concludes.

Depression, suicidal ideation among college students increased over past 15 years

 Results of an analysis of health survey data from more than 560,000 U.S. college students concludes that depression symptoms have steadily increased over the past 15 years, particularly among women, minorities and students experiencing financial stress. 

The study, led by researchers at Johns Hopkins Children’s Center along with McDaniel College and University of Maryland, specifically found that the rate of self-reported depression symptoms continued to grow over the 15 years of the analysis period (2007–2022), extending a trend reported by many researchers for the past two decades. 

According to Carol Vidal, M.D., Ph.D., M.P.H., child and adolescent psychiatrist at the Children’s Center, thoughts of suicide, or “suicidal ideation,” increased across all demographic groups regardless of race, age, gender or financial stress, but reports of other symptoms, such as restlessness and lack of concentration rose most steeply among female, financially distressed and minority students. 

A report about the  new study, published in the Journal of Affective Disorders, concluded that the findings highlight growing mental health disparities among college students. The report adds that the consistently steeper increases among women, students of racial minority groups, and those experiencing financial stress reveal that the rise in symptoms of depression is not uniform, and that the growth of suicide ideation across all groups signals an urgent need for prevention and targeted support strategies on college campuses.

For the study, researchers analyzed data from the Healthy Minds Study, a long-running research project led by several universities across the country that surveys college students about their mental health.

Depression symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), a tool used by psychiatrists and other mental health providers to diagnose and monitor the severity of depression. The questionnaire asks about nine symptoms, including suicidal ideation, poor appetite and trouble sleeping. The students are asked to give each symptom a score from 0 to 3 — 0 meaning never and 3 meaning they experience that symptom every day. 

Points are then added together for a total score. An overall score of 0 to 4 means the person likely is not experiencing depression. A score of 20 to 27 indicates severe depression. 

In the new analysis, average overall PHQ-9 scores increased every year. The highest symptom increase was seen in suicidal ideation, which increased by nearly 154%. The next highest was restlessness, which increased by nearly 80%. Trouble concentrating increased by over 77%. 

Vidal says that some minority students and those experiencing financial stress are considered vulnerable populations, and are more likely to encounter both acute life events and chronic stressors that can lead to psychological and physiological changes, including elevated stress hormones. 

The study also showed that sleep disturbance and appetite problems grew significantly faster among women compared with men. But Vidal says that men are generally less likely to report mental health symptoms. She noted that suicide rates are higher among men than women. 

Students who reported financial stress specifically saw higher PHQ-9 scores in symptoms of poor appetite, feelings of worthlessness and suicidal ideation. Minority racial and ethnic groups overall, but especially Hispanic students, saw higher PHQ-9 scores in symptoms of sleep problems. Women showed an average overall increase of 0.041 points each year in losing interest in activities that were once enjoyable, compared with a 0.028-point increase per year among men. 

Vidal says colleges, universities, parents and health care providers can all play a role in addressing differences in mental health indicators by being alert to those differences, addressing underlying stressors among the most vulnerable populations and seeking services when needed. . 

DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2025.121002

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Autonomy in school: how autonomy is experienced matters more than how much autonomy is provided

Research identifies two distinct motivational pathways: one that supports persistence and achievement, and another that fuels procrastination and school burnout

As academic pressure intensifies for adolescents worldwide, educators and parents face a familiar dilemma: Should schools give students more autonomy to support motivation and well-being, or does structure and control remain essential for performance? A new study published in the Journal of Adolescence suggests that this question may be too simplistic.

The research shows that how autonomy is experienced matters more than how much autonomy is provided. Specifically, autonomy satisfaction (feeling that one’s actions reflect personal values and interests) and autonomy frustration (feeling pressured, controlled, or coerced) are not opposite ends of a single continuum. Instead, they represent distinct psychological experiences that steer adolescents toward markedly different academic and emotional outcomes.

Adolescence is a pivotal developmental stage in which the desire for independence increasingly collides with structured educational demands. This tension becomes especially pronounced in high-stakes learning environments, such as high schools preparing students for competitive college entrance examinations.

In a study published online on January 15, 2026, researchers led by Dr. Yi Jiang examined the learning experiences of 1,639 high school students.

“Autonomy isn’t just a simple slider from ‘low’ to ‘high’,” the research team explains. “Students can experience limited choice without feeling controlled. However, when they actively feel pressured or coerced, that is, when autonomy is frustrated, we observe clear links to maladaptive learning behaviors and school burnout.”

The study identified two distinct pathways associated with adolescents’ autonomy experiences:

• The Thriving Path: When students experienced autonomy satisfaction, they were more likely to persist in the face of academic challenges. This sustained effort, in turn, was associated with stronger academic achievement, highlighting the motivational benefits of feeling self-directed and volitional in learning.
• The Stressing Path: Autonomy frustration was strongly linked to procrastination, which emerged as a key contributor to school burnout, a state of emotional exhaustion and disengagement from schoolwork. Importantly, this pathway primarily undermined students’ well-being rather than directly lowering performance.

The study also uncovered gender differences in how autonomy experiences relate to learning behaviors. While autonomy was important for all students, boys appeared to rely more strongly on autonomy satisfaction to sustain persistence and motivation in academic tasks.

“These findings suggest that supporting autonomy is not simply about offering more choices,” the authors note. “Reducing controlling pressures and need-thwarting practices may be just as critical, particularly in high-pressure educational contexts.”

 

Reference
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.70107

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DOI

10.1002/jad.70107 

How much sleep do teens get? Six-seven hours.

 

And that is definitely not enough.

Teenagers across the country are getting less sleep, a researcher from the University of Connecticut reports on March 2 in JAMA. And the problem appears to be societal.

Teens not getting enough sleep has been reported as a problem in the medical literature since at least the turn of the 20th century: a 1905 study in The Lancet of the sleep hours of boys in British boarding schools worried that they were not getting enough sleep due to nighttime lighting, and suggested that “late to bed and early to rise is neither physiological nor wise”. Later on in the 1950s public concern focused on evening entertainments such as radio and television keeping teens awake too late. More recently, research has connected too little sleep with overstimulation, mental health problems, accidents, and academic challenges.

But teens are getting even less sleep than they used to, report UConn School of Medicine psychiatric epidemiologist T. Greg Rhee and colleagues in their latest look at the Youth Risk Behavior Survey done by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Youth Risk Behavior Survey provides nationally-representative data to examine long-term trends of risk behaviors in teens. Rhee and his colleagues’ analysis of the survey data from 2007 to 2023 shows more than 50% of teens are reporting less than 5 hours of sleep a night in the most recent survey, more sleep deprived teens than in any previous survey. Less than five hours of sleep a night is considered very short sleep, and is associated with emotional regulation issues such as anxiety and depression, poor academic performance or neurocognitive development, and increased risks for obesity and diabetes. Teen getting less than 5 hours of sleep a night increased across all subgroups in the most recent survey, whether they had risk factors such as depressive thoughts, using controlled substances, or had large amounts of screen time, or no risk factors at all. The number of teens getting sufficient sleep, defined as eight or more hours a night, dropped from more than 30% in 2007 to less than 25% in 2023.

“These trends highlight the need for population-level interventions among teens. For example, later school start times can help with longer sleep, which may lead to better mental health outcomes and greater academic engagement,” said Rhee and his colleagues. 
 
More research is needed into which interventions might be effective on the population level. For example, Rhee suggests researchers examine whether reforming academic or extracurricular schedules to reduce evening demands could improve sleep health among teens. 

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Journal

JAMA

DOI

10.1001/jama.2026.1417 

Young gamers may be at higher risk of mental health problems, school support can help

 Pre-teens who struggle to control their video gaming habits are more likely to have psychotic-like experiences a year later, a new study has found.

McGill University researchers and colleagues at Maastricht University found that 12-year-olds who showed signs of problematic gaming were more likely to experience mild paranoia, unusual beliefs or disturbed perceptions at age 13.

“Problematic gaming means having difficulty controlling one’s amount of gaming, leading to distress or problems at school or in relationships,” said lead author Vincent Paquin, Assistant Professor in McGill’s Department of Psychiatry and psychiatrist at the Jewish General Hospital.

Supportive environments matter

Notably, young gamers who felt more supported at school and at home were less likely to have problematic gaming habits overall.

“For health professionals, teachers and policymakers, our findings highlight the importance of promoting supportive social environments. It may help prevent gaming from becoming problematic,” said Paquin.

Once gaming became problematic, however, support from family and school alone was not enough to offset the later mental health link, he added, suggesting that other forms of mental health supports may be needed.

How the study was conducted

The findings, published in the Journal of Behavioral Addictions, are based on data from more than 6,000 U.S. adolescents. The broader study began when participants were nine. They were surveyed at ages 12 and 13 about their gaming habits, mental health and daily lives.

Using statistical models, researchers examined whether problematic gaming predicted later mental health symptoms. The association persisted even after accounting for earlier mental health symptoms and family factors, suggesting the link was not simply a product of pre-existing problems.

Looking beyond screen time

More broadly, the results add nuance to current conversations about screen time, suggesting the risks may be more about quality than quantity.

“Video games can foster creativity, social connection and a sense of agency. But in a minority of young people, they become sources of distress that crowd out other aspects of life,” said Paquin.

The team is now developing a practical assessment tool to help doctors and educators better understand not just how much young people game, but how gaming fits into their broader lives and well-being.

About the study

“Situating problematic gaming and psychotic-like experiences in the adolescent landscape of affordances: A cohort study” by Vincent Paquin and Sinan Gülöksüz et al., was published in the Journal of Behavioral Addictions.

Pollen exposure linked to poorer exam results taken at the end of secondary school

 

Effects strongest for subjects involving maths, including physics and chemistry Recognition needed of this and its potential impact on future prospects, say researchers

Pollen exposure is linked to poorer exam results taken at the end of secondary (high) school (matriculation), with the effects especially noticeable in subjects involving maths, including physics and chemistry, finds research published online in the Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health.

 

Recognition is needed of the adverse effects of fluctuations in pollen levels on academic performance and the potential impact on a student’s future prospects, conclude the researchers.

 

Allergic rhinitis, caused by an allergic reaction to nasal irritants, such as dust, pet hair, mould and pollen, is known to undermine wellbeing and undermine cardiovascular health, sleep quality, concentration, and mood, explain the researchers.

 

These effects can be amplified by air pollution and extreme weather, which alter plant growth, pollen production, and allergenic potential, they add. But it’s not clear if pollen exposure might also affect academic performance.

 

To explore this further, the researchers studied all 92,280 students who took the national high school matriculation exam in the metropolitan areas of Helsinki and Turku in southern Finland between 2006 and 2020.

 

The researchers retrieved matriculation exam results from Statistics Finland, focusing on grades obtained in Finnish, History and Social Studies, Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry to see if they changed in relation to pollen exposure during this period. The students’ average age was 19, but ranged from 16 to 77.

 

Daily regional pollen counts of alder (Alnus spp) and hazel (Corylus avellana) were monitored throughout this period, because these are the only plants that bloom and release pollen grains in Finland around the time of the spring matriculation exams.

 

Levels were expressed as pollen grains per cubic metre of air and classified as low (1–10); moderate (10–100); or abundant (100+). Data on air pollution (PM2.5, O3, NO2) and weather were obtained from the Finnish Meteorological Institute.

 

The maximum average daily alder pollen count was 521 pollen grains/cubic metre of air on an exam day; that of hazel was 57/cubic metre of air.

 

In all, 156,059 exam scores were included in the analysis, which showed that matriculation exam scores fell noticeably on days with low and high levels of pollen (U-shaped curve) compared with days when there was no pollen in the air.

 

An average environmental increase of 10 alder and hazel pollen grains was associated with a fall in the standardised matriculation exam score by an average of 0.0034 and 0.0144, respectively. This corresponds to a reduction in points of  0.042 and 0.17, respectively (on a scale of 0–66).

 

The fall in matriculation exam scores was even greater after accounting for temperature, ambient air pollution, and rainfall during exam hours.

 

Similar trends were observed for both sexes, although an increase of 10 alder pollen grains was associated with a statistically significant drop in the matriculation exam scores only among females, corresponding to a reduction of 0.0652 points.

 

Each additional 10 pollen grain increase in alder was associated with a statistically significant fall in exam scores in maths subjects for both subjects, possibly because these subjects require a greater level of accuracy and concentration, suggest the researchers.

 

On the other hand, hazel pollen exposure  was associated with a drop in maths scores only among males.

 

This is an observational study, and as such, no firm conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect. And the researchers acknowledge that they didn’t have any information on who, among the students, was allergic to pollen, although around 1 in 5 secondary school students is affected by allergic rhinitis, they point out.

 

“Because of this, it is likely that the drop in matriculation exam scores observed in the data is largely explained by pollen induced symptoms among students who were allergic... It would be likely that those suffering from pollen allergies would have a higher than average drop in matriculation exam scores,” they explain.

 

“This is relevant for the student’s future because the scores of the matriculation exams have a reasonably prominent weight value when applying for further education, as well as placement in working life and income,” they add.

 

They conclude: “From the point of view of further education studies and employment, it is important to be aware that exposure to pollen can impair success in test situations.

 

“To create more equal performance conditions, we should find solutions to reduce exposure to pollen and its harmful effects (eg, scheduling exams outside the pollen season), to improve preparedness (eg, more accurate and accessible pollen information) and/or to start medication in a timely way (eg, increasing the awareness of healthcare professionals and people who are allergic to pollen).”

 

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Journal

Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health

DOI

10.1136/jech-2025-224112 

Children’s development set back years by Covid lockdowns

 

The Covid pandemic disrupted children’s ability to self-regulate - according to new research from the University of East Anglia.

A new study reveals that the pandemic hampered children’s ability to regulate their behaviour, stay focused and adapt to new situations - skills known collectively as executive functions.

The greatest impact was seen among pupils who were in reception when the first lockdowns began - a crucial stage when youngsters normally learn to socialise, follow routines and navigate the busy world of the classroom.

These children showed less growth in their self-regulatory and cognitive flexibility scores over time compared to a second group of children who were in preschool when the pandemic started.

The research team say these children may still be feeling the effects years later.

How the research happened

Scientists were already running a long-term study tracking youngsters from toddlerhood to early school years when the Covid pandemic hit.

They followed 139 children aged between two-and-a-half and six-and-a-half years old over several years, including 94 families who joined the study before Covid struck.

This meant that they had a rare baseline of children’s abilities before the pandemic began, which allowed them to track exactly how development changed during and after the lockdowns.

Using a standardised assessment called the Minnesota Executive Function Scale, they were able to measure the same cognitive skills at regular intervals.

Reception pupils fell behind and struggled to catch up

Lead researcher Prof John Spencer, from UEA’s School of Psychology, said: “Children who were in reception when the country shut down showed much slower growth in key self-regulation and cognitive flexibility skills over the next few years than children who were still in preschool.

“These children found it harder to shift between tasks and control impulses - abilities that usually improve rapidly once children enter structured school environments.

Why reception-age children suffered the most

“Reception is a critical year for peer socialisation,” said Prof Spencer.  “It’s when children learn classroom norms and build early friendships that shape their confidence,” said Prof Spencer.

“But for the cohort who started school in 2020, classrooms were closed, routines collapsed overnight, and opportunities for social interaction were severely limited.”

Without these experiences, children’s self-regulatory skills didn’t develop as quickly year-on-year after the lockdowns ended.

Many in this cohort also caught Covid more frequently, raising the possibility that periods of illness worsened the issue.

Key findings:

• Individual differences in executive function abilities were remarkably stable. Children who had stronger skills at two-and-a-half years old tended to remain ahead at six-and-a-half years.
• Children from lower socio-economic households consistently scored lower, echoing long-standing research on the impact of maternal education and home environment.
• Even when controlling for age and family background, Covid’s impact was evident. Children who were in reception at the start of the pandemic made more modest improvements in executive function compared to those still in preschool.

“Our findings suggest that peer socialisation and the new self-regulatory skills children must master in reception might be particularly critical for the development of executive function skills.

“Without these experiences, reception children had a challenging time developing self-regulation and cognitive flexibility in the years that followed the pandemic.

Extra support

The researchers say their work highlights a generation of children who may need more support from teachers, schools and health services in coming years.

The findings also raise questions about how to protect children’s development in future national emergencies.

This research was led by the University of East Anglia, in collaboration with Lancaster University and Durham University.

‘Tracking the trajectory of executive function from 2.5 to 6.5 years of age and the impact of COVID‐19’ is published in the journal Child Development.