Physical aggression by young people toward their parents occurs quite frequently – yet the subject remains taboo. Victims often struggle with shame and avoid seeking help, hoping to shield their children from repercussions. Now, in a first-of-its-kind longitudinal study, researchers at the University of Zurich (UZH) have tracked the development of this behavior from early adolescence to young adulthood, identifying which factors increase or reduce the risk.

 

The research draws on the Zurich Project on Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z-proso), directed by Manuel Eisner, Denis Ribeaud and Lilly Shanahan at UZH’s Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development. The study tracked more than 1,500 participants from early adolescence into young adulthood.

 

32.5% have at least one episode of physical aggression

Nearly one-third of participants (32.5 percent) acknowledge at least one episode of physical aggression toward their parents between the ages of 11 and 24, for instance involving hitting, kicking or throwing objects. This behavior peaks at age 13, when roughly 15% of respondents reported aggressive incidents. From there, the frequency of these episodes declined and plateaued at around 5% by early adulthood.

 

“At first glance, it may seem surprising that one-third of adolescents become physically aggressive toward their parents at some point,” says Lilly Shanahan. “But these are mostly isolated incidents, likely in the midst of heated parent-child conflicts that occur during puberty.  We’re not talking about systematic violence here, and it’s also not about individual failure.” Even so, Shanahan finds it troubling that two of the five in this subset acknowledged having these episodes on multiple occasions.

 

Parental conflict and ADD among risk factors

What drives young people to lash out at their parents? Educational attainment and socioeconomic status appear not to play a significant role. “This problem spans all social classes,” says lead author and postdoctoral researcher Laura Bechtiger. “It’s not limited to any particular social background or gender."

 

That said, researchers did identify multiple risk factors unrelated to whether the child generally has aggressive tendencies. Physical punishment and verbal aggression by parents increase the likelihood of creating a familial cycle of violence in which aggressive behavioral patterns are modeled to their children. Additionally, when parents frequently clash with one another, their children adopt similar patterns of conflict. Young people with attention-deficit and hyperactivity symptoms are also at greater risk, both because they often struggle with impulse control and may provoke impatience from their parents.

 

Conflict resolution and positive environments are protective factors

Fortunately, the research also offers hope: Certain factors can dramatically lower the risk of child-on-parent aggression. Children who have learned how to constructively deal with negative emotions and conflicts are far less prone to physical aggression. A supportive upbringing, where parents are actively involved in their children’s lives, show interest and offer emotional support, also reduces the risk considerably. Furthermore, the researchers believe that early prevention measures can lower the likelihood of aggression later on.

 

“Conflicts between parents and adolescents are normal and even important for development,” explains Denis Ribeaud, co-director of z-proso. “Isolated outbursts during puberty should trigger reflection but are not necessarily cause for alarm. If a pattern emerges, however, this is a red flag. Repeated physical aggression with increasing intensity is a warning sign, as are a lack of remorse and aggressive behavior extending outside of the family.”

 

Early prevention is key

At five percent, the share of 24-year-olds displaying physical aggression is comparatively small, but nonetheless significant. If physical attacks are still being carried out in early adulthood, there is an increased risk of this becoming a lasting pattern, with the attendant psychosocial consequences.

 

Sociologist Manuel Eisner emphasizes the importance of early intervention: “Prevention needs to be aimed at both parents and children. Parents should learn to rely less on corporal punishment and to create a supportive, constructive environment within the family. Children should also receive help to learn emotional regulation and constructive conflict resolution, even before they start school.”

Box
Methodology

The z-proso longitudinal study in Zurich has tracked the social development of children and young people since 2005. Researchers gathered information on physical aggression against parents from 1,522 participants at six intervals: ages 11, 13, 15, 17, 20 and 24. Risk factors and protective factors were recorded from ages 7 to 11. The data was analyzed using logistic regression.

 

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Journal

European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

DOI

What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) new study reviews

WWC has completed 271 new study reviews since October. These include reviews of literacy programs, interventions for students with disabilities, science instructional tools, and many other interventions that seek to improve outcomes for students or teachers. The WWC will continue to release new study reviews to the website. View the WWC’s reviews of studies of educational interventions by searching the reviews of individual studies.

Black and Latino teens show strong digital literacy

A study by UC Riverside and USC education scholars found that Black and Latino teens report having significantly more digital literacy skills, such as detecting online disinformation, than their white peers—particularly content related to race and ethnicity.

These youth are not only quicker to identify false claims and racist propaganda, but also more likely to verify posts with credible sources and respond with corrective, fact-based content,      the study found. According to the researchers, these skills are not being taught. 

“This work reveals that adolescents of color are already engaging in sophisticated forms of digital literacy,” said Avriel Epps, an assistant professor in UC Riverside’s School of Education and lead author of the study. “They have developed these critical skills in many cases from their lived experiences navigating online racism, not necessarily from school-based instruction.”

Published in the journal New Media & Society, the findings run counter to long-held assumptions and earlier academic work asserting that Black teens are less digitally literate than other youths. 

Epps said the study’s purpose was to explore a disconnect between such assumptions and a robust presence of Black and Latino youth culture influencers in various social media platforms.

“How is it that they are the ones who are producing the culture on these online spaces, and yet the literature and research are saying that they have less digital literacy than their white counterparts?” Epps asked rhetorically. “There seemed to be a bit of a mismatch there.”

Epps teamed up with Brendesha Tynes, a University of Southern California professor of education and psychology, who is the principal investigator of the National Survey of Critical Digital Literacy, a longitudinal research study examining the critical digital literacy skills among youth ages 11 to 19. It is funded by a Lyle Spencer Award to Transform Education provided by the a Spencer Foundation.

As part of this initiative, more than 100 Black adolescents, alongside comparable numbers of Latino and white peers, were asked to report daily in dairies how often they analyzed, responded to, or ignored race-related digital content. Tynes and her research team collected these data and Epps use it for an analysis that revealed racial differences in what the study defines as Critical Race Digital Literacy, or CRDL.

“It is essentially being able to recognize, critique, and evaluate digital media that young people consume with a lens that’s focused on race and how it manifests racism,” Tynes said. 

The findings showed a clear pattern.

Many Black and Latino participants were more likely to challenge racist content by crafting their own social media posts that called out false information and by sharing articles from reputable sources to counter divisive narratives, the authors found.

“These teens are often doing this work for their communities,” Epps said. “It’s very possible they’re posting accurate information about social justice movements or correcting harmful stereotypes because they feel a sense of responsibility.”

The results suggest that the lived experiences of minoritized youths appear to make them savvier online. 

“They keep their eyes open and are hyper vigilant,” Epps said. “They have absorbed these      skill sets from having to navigate a world where a racial microaggression could happen at any time. So, it makes sense that would translate to their digital spaces.”

White youths were less likely to question misleading posts concerning race.

“This isn’t because they are less intelligent, but because they haven’t had to be as vigilant. They aren’t the targets of digital racism in the way that youth of color are,” Epps said.

The study’s findings run counter to research published in 2021 by the Stanford History Education Group (now called the Digital Inquiry Group) in which Black students scored significantly lower than other racial-ethnic groups when they were asked to analyze real-life digital media. However, this research did not examine their reactions related to race or racism. 

The findings are particularly relevant as misinformation becomes more targeted and sophisticated, and as educators grapple with how—or whether—to teach about race amid political battles over school curricula.

While high schools are addressing digital literacy, they do so mostly without addressing racial aspects of much of the disinformation disseminated online. Teachers in the U.S. are further hampered by political backlash for teaching about systemic racism, such as critical race theory, which has a chilling effect on any classroom discussion about race, the authors say.

Importantly, the researchers say that youth of color offer a foundation upon which schools and policymakers can build better curricula.

“Our goal is not to shift the burden but to recognize and honor the critical skills these young people already possess,” Epps said. “We can either ignore that reality, or we can build on it to make education more relevant and just.”

“The main takeaway for educators is that making your lessons culturally relevant matters 
regardless of what you’re teaching,” Epps said. “Culturally responsive pedagogy matters in math. It matters in English and language arts. It matters for digital literacy and digital citizenship.”

The study’s title is “Racial-Ethnic Differences in Racial-ethnic Differences in Adolescents’ Daily Enactment of Critical Race Digital Literacy Skills: A Daily Diary Study.” In addition to Epps and Tynes, its co-authors are Matthew Coopilton of Cal State Northridge and Devin English of Rutgers University.
 

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Journal

New Media & Society

DOI

10.1177/14614448251404416 

 

Girls are happier than boys at school

 

A new survey shows that there is a clear difference between girls and boys when it comes to well-being at school.

"Girls are happier than boys. This applies both in class and at school in general," says Professor Hermundur Sigmundsson at the Department of Psychology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology  (NTNU).

The researchers questioned 1620 children aged 6 to 9 years in Norway. The average age was 7.5 years old, meaning these were youngest children in primary school.

The gender differences are clear.

Safety and well-being

The researchers examined factors such as:

• Do the students have friends at school?
• Do they feel safe at school, in class and at recess?

The researchers find a clear correlation between well-being and feeling safe.

"We find a significant correlation between well-being and all the questions we asked. Enjoying school and feeling safe at school are strongly connected," says Sigmundsson.

Enjoying school and feeling safe at school are strongly connected.

The correlation is strongest between the question of whether you are safe in school and safe during recess.

The lowest correlation is between whether you have friends to be with at school and how much you like your class.

Well-being and safety were measured by the researchers on a new scale that they developed themselves. They call the scale "Well-being and perceived safety in school scale".

School suits girls better

"It can be said that school is better suited for girls. This may have biological causes, among other things," says Sigmundsson.

Dopamine is a hormone that is somewhat inaccurately called the "happiness hormone". It is secreted by the body when we feel good.

"We know that girls get more dopamine activity through social relationships, being together. Boys get more dopamine through self-centred behaviour. Boys also have higher testosterone levels so they have more need for activity. Long school days, sitting still, does not suit boys," he said.

Change really good for everyone

In a previous article, Hermundur described a project in Iceland where the researchers included extra physical activity in addition to a passion project to improve well-being in the classroom.

"My advice is more physical activity and passion class every day in school," says Sigmundsson.

That will increase the well-being of all students, he says.

Have different perceptions of their strengths

There are also gender differences in how much the students like subjects and how well they think they perform.

Reading and science: Girls generally score higher than boys, both in how much they like the subjects and how well they think they perform.

Mathematics: There is no difference in how much boys and girls like the subject.  But boys think they are best.

Physical education: Boys like the subject best, but there is no difference in how well girls and boys think they perform.

Students who like reading and those who like physical education otherwise seem to be completely different groups of children.

"We only find a weak correlation between feeling good about reading and physical education," Sigmundsson said.

We found a strong connection between liking subjects and doing well.

Students often become good at the subjects they like

In addition, the researchers talked to the children about how much they liked the subjects and compared the answer to how the students actually performed in these subjects. The researchers had a questionnaire for this, while the school conducted the survey.

"Here we found a strong connection between liking subjects and doing well. This was true for in reading, maths, science and physical education," says Sigmundsson.

This was not about how they feel they are doing, but how good their results were.

Reference: Sigmundsson, H., Litlabø, V. R., Matos, M., & Haga, M. (2025). Robust children: exploring engagement with academic subjects, well-being and psychological safety in schoolchildren aged 6–9 years in Norway. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2025.2586675

Worrying rise in self-harm among adolescents, with trans, gender diverse and early school leavers most at risk

 New research has found that while rates of poor mental health and suicide attempts among Irish adolescents have largely recovered from the peaks seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, repeated self-harm is increasing, particularly among females. The study led by researchers in RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences and King’s College London, highlights that trans and gender-diverse young people and early school leavers are particularly vulnerable to mental distress.  

Researchers analysed more than 20,000 anonymous responses to the Planet Youth Survey from students aged 15-19 in 113 secondary schools across six counties, estimating national trends in poor mental health, repetitive self-harm (five or more times in one's lifetime) and suicide attempts between 2018 and 2023. The study is the largest investigation of mental health problems among the general adolescent population in Ireland since 2019.  

The findings show that one in five respondents reported poor mental health at the time of the survey, one in eight reported repeated self-harm during their lifetime and one in twelve reported having attempted suicide in their lifetime. The proportion of adolescents reporting self-harm increased from 9.7% during the COVID-19 period to 11.1% two years post-pandemic. Rates were significantly higher among females, trans and gender-diverse adolescents, and early school leavers (pupils in Youthreach centres). Trans and gender diverse young people reported the highest rates of any of subjectively poor mental health (52%), repetitive self-harm (44%) and suicide attempt (23%), while pupils in Youthreach centres were twice as likely to report a history of self-harm or suicide attempts compared with their peers still in mainstream secondary school. 

“Our study shows that in a typical classroom of 25 senior-cycle students, five will report poor mental health, three will have self-harmed multiple times, and two will have attempted suicide at some point in their life. While we knew already that demand for adolescent mental health supports in Ireland exceeds available services, these findings illustrate just how wide that gap may be. They underline the need for stronger mental health supports at every level – especially in secondary schools, primary care and community-based services such as Jigsaw,” explains Dr Niamh Dooley, DOROTHY Research Fellow at RCSI Department of Psychiatry and at King’s College London. 
 
The findings published in Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology have significant implications for supporting at-risk adolescents, particularly early school leavers and trans/gender diverse youth. They also provide updated prevalence estimates for psychological distress in adolescents, which may be used to determine the minimum service capacity of community mental health teams.  

“The results of this study reflect growing societal concern about teenage mental health. The continued prevalence of suicide attempts highlights the importance of early, universal prevention, as well as targeted interventions for groups of young people who face heightened and more complex risks,” said Professor Mary Cannon, Professor of Psychiatric Epidemiology and Youth Mental Health at RCSI. 

This study was carried out as part of the Planet Youth Ireland programme, which is based on the Icelandic Prevention Model and surveys mental health and substance-use problems in adolescents every two years across 12 counties in Ireland (www.planetyouth.ie). The analysis was funded by the DOROTHY fellowship programme, which receives funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement, Research Ireland, the Health Research Board, and the Environmental Protection Agency.  

 

One in four teens face violence, higher substance use

One in four U.S. adolescents is exposed to violence in their neighborhood, and those teens are more than twice as likely to use cigarettes, alcohol or drugs to cope, according to a new study from The University of Texas at Arlington.

Published in the Journal of Affective Disorders, the study was led by UT Arlington School of Social Work Professor Philip Baiden and drew on national data from the 2023 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Researchers analyzed responses from 20,005 adolescents ages 12 to 18, offering new insights into early pathways to substance use, a persistent public health concern.

“Our study reminds us that violence is not a rare or isolated experience for many young people—it is a daily reality,” Dr. Baiden said. “Youth exposed to neighborhood violence often carry the psychological weight of chronic stress, fear and trauma. Many turn to alcohol, marijuana, vaping or other substances to self-medicate or numb the emotional impact of these experiences.”

According to the 2024 National Institute on Drug Abuse annual report, 58.3% of individuals ages 12 or older reported using tobacco, vaping nicotine, alcohol or an illicit drug in the prior month. Substance misuse contributes to preventable illness and death nationwide.

Catherine LaBrenz, coauthor of the study and a UTA School of Social Work associate professor, noted that previous research has shown neighborhood violence can alter how the brain processes emotions.

“When teens experience chronic fear or trauma, it can increase vulnerability to substance use,” Dr. LaBrenz said.

The researchers examined five substance categories: cigarette smoking, alcohol use, electronic vaping products, marijuana use, and prescription opioid misuse. Exposure to neighborhood violence was associated with higher odds of using all five substances, even after controlling for demographics, mental health symptoms, physical activity and bullying involvement.

The study also revealed several notable patterns. Cyberbullying is more strongly linked to substance use than traditional school bullying. In addition, students who participate in team sports tend to report higher rates of alcohol use.

“Cyberbullying is distinct in that it follows adolescents everywhere—there is no escape,” Baiden said. “If someone is bullied on a school playground, it’s traumatizing but you could brush it off and might be able to outgrow it. When it is cyberbullying, it spreads widely, persists indefinitely and you don’t know who has access to it, which makes its emotional impact even more traumatic. You can’t just delete it.”

The study also identified a nuanced relationship between team sports and substance use. Participation in team sports such as football, for example, was linked to increased alcohol use.

“Team sports can offer structure, belonging and social support, but they also expose adolescents to peer cultures where alcohol use may be normalized,” Baiden said. “That helps explain why we see increased odds of drinking among youth who participate.”

Baiden and LaBrenz said the findings could help inform policies and prevention strategies aimed at reducing substance use among adolescents. Further research will focus on specific populations and potential interventions.

“It’s not enough to document adverse effects,” Baiden said. “We want to identify interventions that counselors, mental health professionals and social workers can use when working with youth who experience neighborhood violence.”

UTA Social Work professors Angela J. Hall and Joshua Awua were contributing authors to the study.

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Journal

Journal of Affective Disorders

DOI

10.1016/j.jad.2025.120626 

Most college students rebounded after pandemic, but to varying degrees

 

New research from Michigan State University finds that in the four years after the COVID-19 pandemic upended campus life, the majority of college students successfully bounced back. Students experienced rising life satisfaction and declining loneliness and, surprisingly, even a fonder remembrance of online classes from the early days of the pandemic.

The study, published in Personality and Individual Differences, is one of the few longitudinal studies to come out of the pandemic. Researchers tracked the same 248 college students from 2020–21 through 2025.

The study — which sampled MSU students — found broad improvements in psychological functioning. Participants reported higher life satisfaction, less loneliness and seeing friends more often in person again.

Largest of all, participants reflected more fondly on their online courses nearly five years after the initial shift to online learning. They also reported having a preference for in-person and hybrid work and learning opportunities over fully remote options.

“The fact that people now see remote learning more favorably — even though they hated it at the time — tells us something important about how we design flexible education and work options going forward,” said William Chopik, co-author of the study and associate professor in the Department of Psychology. “People’s preferences for remote versus in-person work are tied to who they are as people and how they might work or learn best, so blanket policies probably aren’t the best approach.”

Personality traits were a small predictor of outcomes years following the pandemic. Extraverts reported higher life satisfaction and lower loneliness, while more anxious people struggled a bit more with loneliness over time. 

“This study gives us a clearer picture of how personality matters more during crises but less so once things stabilize,” said Logan Gibson, co-author and undergraduate research associate. “It’s reassuring to know that people aren’t locked into bad outcomes just because of their personality traits.”

However, researchers emphasize that the findings suggest that one-size-fits-all approaches to postcrisis recovery may leave vulnerable individuals behind.

“We’re hoping this helps organizations and mental health professionals understand that while most people are resilient, not everyone rebounds at the same rate,” said Chopik. “If you know that certain people might need extra support during big transitions, you can actually do something about it. This could help schools and workplaces design better support systems instead of assuming everyone’s fine once restrictions lift.

By Shelly DeJong

Read on MSUToday.