The Advanced Placement gender gap is narrowing but not across all subjects

 

Boys take more STEM exams, girls more humanities. The disparity could hurt their education

The gender balance among the top scorers on Advanced Placement exams tends to track the gender balance among students taking those tests, according to a new study led by the University of Georgia.

That gender gap is currently quite wide.

Across more than two decades of exam data, the researchers found participation in AP tests were often split along gender lines. Girls dominated the languages, humanities and arts, while boys took more STEM (or science, technology, engineering and math) subjects.

In many subjects, the more evenly split the AP test takers were, the narrower the gender gaps among students earning top scores became, the study found.

“Gender stereotypes about ability, like persistent beliefs that boys are naturally better at mathematics, physics, computing or similar STEM courses, or that girls are better at arts, can influence both students’ choices on which class to take and how well they do in that class,” said Kadir Bahar, corresponding author of the study and an associate professor in the Mary Frances Early College of Education. “Students are more likely to enter and persist in a field when they feel that people like them belong in it.”

AP classes are offered in high schools across the country. They are designed by the College Board to match the rigor of college courses and can count toward college credits if students score well on the AP exams at the end of term.

Gender gaps narrowed significantly in some subjects, grew in others

The researchers analyzed more than 70 million AP exam results, covering about 40 million students between 1997 and 2020.

Out of 45 subjects, boys outnumbered girls in many science and math-centered subjects, especially physics and computer science, the study found. For example, the researchers found that for every one girl taking the AP Computer Science A exam, more than four boys were taking the exam.

Girls outnumbered boys in studio art exams by almost three to one, and in English literature exams by almost two to one.

“Think about it: You are going to an AP physics course, and there is only one girl for every three boys. That might give a girl a sense that physics is a boys’ room. That subject belongs to them,” Bahar said. That feeling may make girls question whether they should take a course, even if it interests them.

The researchers found that male overrepresentation has decreased in many of those STEM-related courses — calculus, computer science and chemistry, for instance — over the years.

You are going to an AP physics course, and there is only one girl for every three boys. That might give a girl a sense that physics is a boys’ room.

Kadir Bahar, Mary Frances Early College of Education

AP Calculus AB exam participation, for example, stayed close to evenly split between boys and girls while the gap in Calculus BC narrowed. Statistics also evened out, and German and Latin were roughly balanced throughout.

That was not the case for algebra-based Physics 1, though. It remained male-dominated, and the gap widened. In the years the exam was offered (2015 through 2020), three of every five students who took it were boys.

Studio art continued to skew more female, and that gap also grew. Roughly seven out of every 10 students taking those exams were girls.

“We aren’t sure exactly what changed,” Bahar said. “But there were nevertheless encouraging signs of change. Gender gaps narrowed significantly in several subjects.”

Participation in AP tests and exam scores could be linked

Across many AP subjects, gender representation among exam takers was strongly associated with gender representation among students earning a top score of 5. However, the relationship varied substantially by subject.

In some subjects that maintained a sizable gap in participation, the gender that made up the majority of students also made up the highest scores. But in several subjects where girls were most of the test takers, such as biology, environmental science and world history, boys still outnumbered girls among top scorers.

The gaps remained striking in some subjects. Across the study period, boys were represented among top scorers at roughly four times the rate of girls in Physics 1 and nearly six times the rate in Computer Science A.

“Participation and top achievement are related,” Bahar said. “Getting more girls into computer science may help narrow those excellence gaps.” Physics was a notable exception, though. There, changes in participation did not track changes among top scorers.

Gendered expectations can accumulate over many years.

Kadir Bahar

Simply increasing participation by one gender won’t necessarily close gaps among top scorers, the researchers said.

“Gendered expectations can accumulate over many years,” Bahar said. “Parents may perceive sons as more mathematically capable and daughters as more verbally capable. Teachers may unintentionally enforce such expectations, and peer norms can make certain subjects appear more or less socially appropriate for boys or girls.”

Making all students feel comfortable to try different subjects is key, the researchers said.

“Equity doesn’t mean forcing equal numbers of boys and girls into every subject,” Bahar said. “But it means ensuring that gender is not creating unnecessary barriers to opportunity, participation, support or high achievement.”

The study was published in the Journal of Educational Psychology and was co-authored by Yasemin Sipahi, a doctoral student in the Department of Educational Psychology, as well as Eter Mjavanadze, Erdogan Kaya and Ummugulsum Aydin.

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Journal

Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI

10.1037/edu0001070

Schools increasingly affected by poor air quality as wildfire smoke becomes more common

. – American children are increasingly exposed to air pollution as wildfire smoke becomes more common, and some schools and childcare centers struggle to keep indoor breathing conditions clean, a new national study shows.

The researchers note that components of wildfire smoke, including PM2.5, which is fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller, are known health hazards, especially for adolescents and younger children.

For the study, published in Environmental Research, scientists looked at air quality data from across the United States from 2006 through 2023 and found some alarming trends, said co-author Molly Kile of Oregon State University.

“The average number of annual smoke days at public schools rose from 6.8 to 54.4 between the beginning and end of the study period,” said Kile, an environmental epidemiologist in the OSU College of Health. “Childcare centers experienced an increase from 9.4 to 112.2 days. Our children are collectively experiencing billions of days of smoky air each year.”

Four decades of data from the National Interagency Fire Center show that the number of U.S. wildfires per year has remained relatively stable – generally in the range of 70,000 – but the intensity of those fires and the acreage burned have increased.

And while the western part of the country tends to see more fires and heavier smoke, the issue is a national one, Kile emphasizes.

“Yes, there is more severe wildfire smoke in the West, but fine particulate matter travels hundreds and thousands of miles,” she said. “And the prevailing wind blows from west to east, so it all goes downwind.”

PM2.5 can be inhaled deeply into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, is a known cause of cardiovascular disease and is linked to the onset and worsening of respiratory illness. 

As climate change exacerbates wildfire risk, PM2.5 emissions from fires have surged to the point that wildfires now account for almost half of all PM2.5 across the United States and have negated air quality improvements in multiple regions.

“We are often told to stay indoors when air pollution gets severe but being indoors does not guarantee clean air,” Kile said, noting that indoor air quality measurements showed substantial variation in how well buildings protected occupants from outdoor fine particulate pollution.

“Some schools had higher indoor PM2.5 concentrations than nearby outdoor measurements during smoke days,” she said. “This is a particularly actionable finding and emphasizes the need for investment in improving indoor air quality in schools through HVAC upgrades, which can be expensive, or portable HEPA filters, which can be a more affordable approach.”

Stephanie Foster, the study’s corresponding author, notes because of the amount of time students spend in schools and childcare centers, those places are important settings for safeguarding children’s health.

“We found that the buildings where children spend much of their day do not consistently protect them from air pollution,” said Foster, scholarly activity program manager in Samaritan Health Services’ Research Development Office. “But educational facilities are places where coordinated preparedness plans, air filtration, indoor air quality monitoring and changes to activities during smoke events could reduce exposure.”

Joining Foster and Kile on the study were Andrew Larkin, Megan MacDonald, Megan McClelland and Perry Hystad of the OSU College of Health and Parichehr Salimifard of the OSU College of Engineering. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences supported the research.

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Journal

Environmental Research

DOI

10.1016/j.envres.2026.125883 

College Success: Understanding the Roles of Financial Aid, Loans, Preparation, & Incentives

 Over the past four decades, the earnings gap between college graduates and non-graduates has widened substantially, prompting interest in policies aimed at promoting higher education among low-income students. A key challenge for these policies is the high college dropout rate. This paper develops a dynamic model of college enrollment and completion with rich individual heterogeneity to assess how various factors influence college attendance, dropout, and graduation. 

The authors estimate the model using data from longitudinal surveys, results of quasi-experimental studies on grant aid, and large-scale randomized controlled trials. They use the model to simulate the effects of tuition subsidies, college loans, financial incentives, and increased pre-college skills on attendance and completion. 

The authors  find moderate effects of most unconditional financial policies on attendance, with small effects on completion conditional on attendance. By contrast, some merit-based incentives, such as forgiving student loans upon receipt of a bachelor’s degree, have substantial effects. However, this type of policy and other financial subsidies accrue even more than the others to students from relatively wealthy backgrounds. 

Overall, it appears infeasible to design a financial aid policy that is simultaneously effective in raising attainment and fiscally progressive. 

A third of young adults turn to artificial intelligence for substance-use information

 

More than 32% of participants in a Rutgers study reported using ChatGPT and similar chatbots for substance-use information.

Rutgers Health researchers used survey data from nearly 1,000 participants to examine the frequency and characteristics of people turning to generative artificial intelligence (AI), a subfield of AI that creates synthetic content in response to user prompts, for substance-related information and their perceptions around the results produced by AI.

Recent survey data shows that 66% of young adults use AI to search for information and to get medical advice, among other purposes. Rutgers investigators aimed to better understand how young adults use AI specifically to get information about substances and substance use.

The study, published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research Formative Research, found that 1 in 3 people ages 18 to 29 use AI for substance use–related information, primarily seeking information on risks and consequences. Researchers said their findings were concerning, considering AI chatbots can reproduce misinformation.

“Using these tools can lead to misinformed or otherwise risky substance-use behavior among young people, who are the age group most affected by adverse effects of substance use,” said Mireia Triguero Roura, a postdoctoral researcher with the Center for Pharmacoepidemiology and Treatment Science at Rutgers Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging Research and lead author of the study.

About half of the respondents who use AI for substance use-related information reported doing so on at least a monthly basis. The study, coauthored by Pia M. Mauro, an associate professor at the Center for Pharmacoepidemiology and Treatment Science and Rutgers School of Public Health, also found that Black and male participants were more likely to use AI for substance use–related purposes.

“The observed disparities in who chooses to use AI for drug-related inquiries could reflect differences in healthcare access, stigma, trust, and health information-seeking behaviors,” said Triguero Roura.

Researchers also analyzed respondents’ feelings toward AI, reporting that young adults in the study perceived high levels of trust, reliability and helpfulness of AI tools.

As AI continues to shape the substance-use information available to young adults, Triguero Roura and Mauro suggest additional research should explore how young adults interpret and understand the outputs of AI when it relates to drugs and alcohol as well as the implications of this new source of information on public health.

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Journal

JMIR Formative Research

DOI

Mental health disparities persist for LGBTQ+ college students nationwide

One in 10 LGBTQ+ college students reported discrimination in the past year, increasing depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, and avoidance of health care

 LGBTQ+ college students who experience discrimination are significantly more likely to experience depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, and avoid needed health care, according to a new national study by Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, Boston University School of Public Health and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute. The findings underscore the profound impact of discrimination on student mental health during a critical stage of life. The results are published in the journal Behavior Medicine.

The study, based on nearly 18,000 LGBTQ+ students at 119 colleges and universities across 34 states, is the largest to examine how discrimination affects the mental health and health care experiences of LGBTQ+ college students. It is also the first to assess these associations during and immediately following a national election year, a period marked by heightened political debate over LGBTQ+ rights.

"Addressing discrimination among college students is essential to support student well-being, reduce mental health disparities, and ensure all students have equitable access to care," said Sarah McKetta, MD, PhD, assistant professor of Epidemiology at Columbia Mailman, and co-first author.

Researchers found that one in 10 LGBTQ+ students experienced discrimination on campus during the previous year. Those students were: 84 percent more likely to meet criteria for depression; 87 percent more likely to meet criteria for anxiety; and 78 percent more likely to report suicidal thoughts in the past year.

Students who experienced discrimination in the form of health care or service denial faced even greater risks. Among LGBTQ+ students, denial of health care was associated with a more than 200 percent higher likelihood of suicidal ideation.

"In addition to an increasingly hostile federal climate, many states have enacted legislation aiming to curtail LGBTQ+ rights," said McKetta. "In 2025 alone, more than 1,000 bills were introduced that would limit transgender people's access to health care, education, or legal recognition."

Emerging adulthood is a pivotal period for lifelong health. It is also when many young adults transition from pediatric to adult health care, often losing established providers and facing new barriers to care.

"Behavioral health during emerging adulthood is a strong predictor of health later in life," said McKetta. "Improving access to affirming health care and reducing discrimination during this transition can have lasting benefits."

Overall, mental health needs among LGBTQ+ students were striking. More than half of participants met criteria for depression. Nearly half of LGBQ+ students and more than half of transgender and nonbinary students met criteria for anxiety. Nearly one in five LGBQ+ students and more than one in four transgender and nonbinary students reported suicidal thoughts during the previous year.

Although more than half of participants sought mental health counseling, many continued to avoid health care because of concerns about discrimination. Nearly 5 percent of LGBQ+ students and 13 percent of transgender and nonbinary students reported avoiding needed medical care.

Researchers found that counseling services may represent an important point of intervention. LGBTQ+ students reported utilizing therapy and counseling services from mental health professionals at high rates, suggesting that counseling settings offer an opportunity to identify psychological distress, provide affirming care, and connect students with broader health services.

The researchers analyzed responses from 17,942 LGBTQ+ students ages 18 to 24 who participated in the 2024–2025 Healthy Minds Study, an annual national survey of college student mental health to examine three types of discriminatory experiences: interpersonal discrimination on campus, past denials of healthcare, or past denials of other services on the basis of sexual orientation and/or gender identity. They also assessed how these discriminatory experiences were associated with mental health outcomes: flourishing, depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation; and healthcare utilization.

"Particularly troubling were our findings on suicidal ideation," noted McKetta. "Across every subgroup of students and every type of discrimination we examined, experiencing discrimination increased the likelihood of suicidal thoughts. These findings highlight the urgent need for colleges to address discrimination as part of comprehensive suicide prevention efforts."

The researchers note that transgender and nonbinary students were more than twice as likely as LGBQ+ students to report being denied health care. Because many transgender people rely on medical services for gender-affirming care, such barriers may have especially serious consequences for both physical and mental health.

"Improving training in LGBTQ+ health for clinicians and campus providers can reduce discriminatory experiences, strengthen trust in health care systems, and improve outcomes for students during this pivotal stage of life," said McKetta.

The authors also emphasize the importance of continuing to support large-scale, high-quality research on LGBTQ+ health.

"Understanding how discrimination affects health depends on rigorous data collection and sustained investment in research," said McKetta. "Without these resources, it becomes much more difficult to identify disparities and develop effective solutions." 

Access to ASL from birth supports childhood math proficiency in deaf children

 

One fish.

Two fish.

Three fish.

The concept of counting a small number of objects is so simple, so fundamental, that we often take for granted what one, two, and three really mean when applied to the world.

Not just reading the words, or recognizing the numeric characters – 1, 2, and 3 – but understanding how those numbers apply to sets of things around us. How they answer the question, “How many?”

Understanding that the final number word said when counting a group of objects represents the total quantity of items in that set is a mathematical concept known as the cardinal principle, and it’s something that typically developing children usually grasp between the ages of 3½ and 5½.

“Kids learn to count, then they start understanding what the words mean, and then they understand this cardinal principle – that the last number word that you say, if you’ve followed all of the counting principles, is a property of the set,” says Marie Coppola, a professor of psychological sciences and linguistics in UConn’s College of Liberal Arts and Sciences who studies language acquisition and language creation as well as the relationship between language and cognition.

“It’s not like there’s something special about that last one that makes it seven,” Coppola says. “No, it’s the whole set that’s seven. It’s an abstraction, and it marks a real milestone in children’s number development.”

Achieving that milestone is a critical component in later mathematics proficiency.

But what if a child doesn’t know the word “one” to begin with, or doesn’t understand what “two” means when applied to a set?

That can be the case for children who are deaf and hard-of-hearing, where language acquisition that otherwise would begin in infancy oftentimes doesn’t begin until later in development.

Cascading Impact

Fewer than 10% of deaf and hard-of-hearing children are born in the United States to deaf parents who use American Sign Language, or ASL, meaning that very few acquire language at home starting at birth like most hearing children do.

Many parents are instead encouraged to pursue spoken language, assistive technologies, and speech therapies for their children, and Coppola notes that while some deaf children do acquire those spoken-language skills, a large number do not.

“Even though we know ASL is a natural language, there is this very, very strong idea – it’s millennia old – that speech is associated with intelligence and ability to learn,” says Coppola. “And that really persists even in the face of so much counterevidence.”

Researchers have reported that significant gaps exist between hearing and deaf and hard-of-hearing children in language development in early childhood. Even in high-income nations with strong infrastructure in special education, deaf and hard-of-hearing children lag about one year behind their hearing peers in mathematics.

The impact cascades through later educational experiences as well. Deaf and hard-of-hearing students score lower on standardized mathematics assessments conducted between ages 8 and 16, researchers have found. In 2017, 15.2% fewer deaf and hard-of hearing individuals earned bachelor’s degrees compared with hearing individuals.

But there isn’t any fundamental reason why deaf children can’t achieve proficiency at the same rate as hearing children, Coppola maintains, and researchers have been working to increase our understanding of why these differences exist and about the approaches that make greater proficiency possible.

“I’ve been very passionate about building an evidence base for the benefits of early access to language for deaf and hard-of-hearing children for a very long time,” Coppola says. “There has been more than 30 years of research showing that later access to language leads to less proficient language development. But that didn’t seem to be getting anyone’s attention.”

Hoping to capitalize on the growing popularity of STEM education and careers, Coppola wants that attention now, with novel research that focuses on the early access to language’s impact not on literacy – but on math.

How High Can They Count?

In 2016, Coppola received a National Science Foundation CAREER Program award to explore the hypothesis that access to language from birth, be it spoken English or ASL, would impact a child’s development of numeracy skills.

The findings from her team’s study were recently published in the Sept.1 issue of the journal Child Development.

To begin investigating the links between language and math proficiency, Coppola worked with specialized schools around the United States to recruit deaf and hard-of-hearing students between the ages of 3 and 7 years old, including those identified as having been exposed to ASL by at least one signing parent since birth, those exposed to spoken English since birth, and those who began acquiring either spoken English or ASL later in childhood.

“Honestly, that was the most difficult part of the study, because only one to two kids per thousand has a significant hearing loss around the time of birth,” Coppola says. “Of this small population, only 5% of them have deaf parents, so we focused on the schools that had a lot of native signing kids.”

She notes that the study would not have been possible without the collaboration of the participating programs.

Once participants were identified and agreed to participate, Coppola’s team began flying around the country to conduct assessments, focused mostly on how well the children had grasped the cardinal principle.

“The easiest thing is the counting – how high can they count?” Coppola explains. “We had two ways of getting them to count. One was just counting, without any objects. For the second condition, we gave them a board that had these very colorful fish and had them count the fish. If they could count up to 10, then we gave them another 10, and they’d count up to 20.”

The data collection process took years and was led by a team comprised of deaf and hearing research assistants who interacted with each of the 178 children included in the study.

“If you’re going to say that deaf kids are struggling with something, you want to give that kid the best opportunity to communicate what they know,” Coppola says. “And that means having a deaf person who’s a proficient signer and who is really good at interacting with deaf kids who may not have had all the language access that they should have had.”

Each child participant was evaluated on their grasp of number concepts, with researchers noting the highest number each child correctly counted without any mistakes, like skipping a number, saying number words out of order, or repeating numbers.

The children were also asked to create sets of specific quantities to assess how well they understood the meanings of the number words they knew, and whether they understood the cardinal principle.

Indistinguishable

What they found, Coppola says, was clear.

“If you compare hearing kids learning spoken English from their parents at home – the way that all hearing kids are – to deaf kids learning ASL from their parents at home, those kids are indistinguishable,” Coppola says. “They have totally comparable performance.”

The study also found that the children who had early access to spoken English or ASL at home performed better at the numbers tasks than children who were exposed at later points in their development, even when controlling for external factors, including socioeconomic status, or SES.

“If you pick any math development paper out of the literature, SES is a significant factor,” says Coppola, but it had no impact in this study.

The findings, Coppola notes, dovetail with research from Boston University that found deaf children of hearing parents demonstrated age-level vocabulary development when exposed to ASL by the time they were 6 months old.

“It turns out that, regardless of how old kids were when they started having good access to language, knowing how to count is really important for understanding the cardinal principle,” Coppola says. “This is not surprising, but it is the first really hard evidence that this is the case for both hearing kids and deaf kids.”

A Language of Academics

This study represents the first to systematically assess how the timing of access to language, the modality of language learned, and hearing status affect children’s acquisition of the cardinal principle and the ability to create sets larger than six.

The study demonstrated, the researchers note, that deafness itself does not impede numeracy development – underscoring the equivalence of early sign and spoken language in supporting number cognition.

The implications, according to Coppola, are broad, though her primary focus is on the people who would impact deaf and hard-of-hearing early learners the most: their parents.

“I designed this whole study and the whole proposal, the whole grant project, to be aimed at parents,” Coppola says. “If hearing parents have a deaf child, and they don’t know what to do, and they want their kid to succeed like a typically hearing child, well, here you go. Now you can see that kids who are exposed to ASL from early in life look like typically hearing children.”

Hearing parents can even be learning to sign right alongside their deaf children, Coppola notes, and research has shown that hearing parents can support age-appropriate development.

More broadly, Coppola hopes that the study will contribute to broader conversations and efforts to impact best-practice recommendations and early intervention methodologies for deaf and hard-of-hearing children – something she acknowledges will take time.

But as evidence-based literature like her study gain attention, and as Deaf culture becomes increasingly more visible through social media and popular culture, Coppola is hopeful that the work of members of the Deaf Community to shift the ways service providers and clinicians approach the needs of deaf and hard-of-hearing children will ultimately change.

And she’s energized to tackle the task herself.

“I want people to see that ASL is a language of academics, Coppola says. “This is why I sign my talks if there’s some percentage of deaf people in the audience. It’s why I try to amplify the perspectives of deaf people whenever I can.

“Kids experience so many conditions and circumstances where the best intervention or approach is not obvious. It’s so clear in this case, and yet it’s still not happening after decades. So, I’m really very motivated to try and change this.”

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Journal

Child Development

DOI

10.1093/chidev/aacag159

Student motivation and responsibility key to tackling bullying in physical education

 Physical education has traditionally been one of the most eagerly awaited classes of the school day, since it lets students get out of the classroom, move around, and interact with their classmates in a different way — conditions that are conducive to learning values such as camaraderie and cooperation. However, the physical exposure and the dynamics of interaction, comparison, and competition that the class can entail still make some students uneasy, and, in settings where bullying occurs, turn it into a potentially unsafe space. In this context, the responses of those who witness bullying are crucial to either stopping or enabling it, and motivation and responsibility are key factorsdetermining whether they adopt active roles.

This is the conclusion of a study of more than 1,300 students ages 10 to 18 conducted by Rafael Clavero Prados, Javier Murillo Moraño, Rafael Zapata Lamana, and Juan De Dios Benítez Sillero, with the Sport and Physical Education for Personal and Social Development research group (GIDEPSO) in the Department of Specific Didactics at the University of Córdoba. To find out how bullying relates to motivation in physical education, they asked students "about their experience with bullying they had suffered or witnessed," while also assessing their motivation toward physical education and their levels of personal and social responsibility, explains researcher Rafael Clavero Prados. The results of the study, published in the journal Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, focus on the role of bystanders and link their responses, whether active or passive, to their interest in sports: students who are more motivated to participate in physical education also show greater personal responsibility, which leads them to step in actively when faced with situations they consider unfair. At the other end of the spectrum, students who have been bullied show lower levels of motivation toward the subject.

Actively defending victims, however, takes more than a willingness to step in. For this to happen, "students must perceive themselves as capable of acting and feel a personal responsibility to do so," the authors argue, pointing to the importance of working at both the individual and social levels to help students recognize how their behavior either perpetuates unfair situations or helps stop them. Researcher Javier Murillo Moraño thus underscores the importance of "developing teaching models that increase social responsibility, which is associated with students more actively standing up for victims." For this reason, the GIDEPSO group maintains that teaching responsibility should be part of a broad bullying prevention strategy that also addresses student motivation, peer relationships, and the responses of those who witness these situations.

Learning to get along

The study is part of a series of research projects that GIDEPSO is carrying out to give teachers tools to combat bullying and to turn both physical education classes and youth sports into safe spaces where young people learn to get along. "The findings are important because they provide new evidence and help us complement the intervention programs we design for this purpose," explains Juan De Dios Benítez Sillero, the group's principal investigator. One example is the PrebullPE program, a hands-on model that the research group has already brought into classrooms and that addresses identifying bullying, managing emotions, and fostering social skills for a better school climate. In this way physical education can become a space for learning not only to cooperate and compete, but also to respect others, take on responsibilities, and stand up to injustice.

 

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Journal

Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

DOI

10.1080/17408989.2026.2716877