Avoid intentional screen time for under-twos

Using screens during the first 1001 days of life can lead to developmental concerns for the next generation, researchers warn.

Digital screen time for under-twos is associated with long-term impacts on health and quality of life, and limited benefits, according to the most comprehensive systematic review yet of global peer-reviewed research into babies’ screen time, published today (Saturday 27 June).  

This has implications for a whole generation and their future quality of life.

Rafe Clayton, School of Media and Communication

Based on the findings, the iADDICT group of researchers from four UK universities recommends that under-twos should not receive any intentional, regular screen time. The academics are calling for any guidance that points under-twos to shared screen time, or suggests that screen technology is suitable for “all ages”, to be reconsidered.   

Researchers stress the findings reflect the pressures of modern digital environments rather than individual parenting choices. They hope the review will provide caregivers with the most up-to-date evidence so they can understand risks and seek support sooner. 

Commissioned by the 1001 Critical Days Foundation, the research was conducted by academics across disciplines of mental health, physical health and social science from the University of Leeds, Leeds Trinity University, Aston University and Loughborough University. The study also invited 174 parents across the UK to share their views on young children’s screen use and their concerns around it through an online survey and focus group interviews. 

Report co-lead Rafe Clayton, Senior Lecturer in Media and Communication at the University of Leeds, said: “We have learned that screen use among the under-twos is a global concern that in 2026 is not being adequately addressed. This has implications for a whole generation and their future quality of life. 

“Screen time guidelines exist for children but are not being followed, in part because the adults who are setting the precedents for societal use are themselves without guidance. As we experience the digital revolution, problematic screen use among adults is common, yet the Government is not currently providing screen time guidelines for adults in the UK, despite the British people wanting them and expecting them. As role models, unguided adults are inadvertently teaching children and babies to develop unhealthy habits and relationships with screen devices and this has to change.” 

The research found a lack of guidance from health professionals for parents about screen use. The researchers believe this is a reminder of the discrepancies between government and healthcare guidance and the real challenges parents face on a daily basis, and call for more targeted support.  

Assessing risk for babies  

Existing guidance from the World Health Organization (2019) and the American Academy of Paediatrics (2024), which recommends that under-twos avoid screen time, is already being exceeded globally during the critical first 1001 days of life, from pregnancy to age two, according to the report.  

The harms of this include reduced opportunities to bond with caregivers, reduced play with peers, limited language development, increased risk of overstimulation, difficulty sleeping, eye health implications, increased risk of childhood obesity and reliance on devices for emotional regulation. However, the review does not establish causal links between screen use and specific developmental conditions. 

The researchers are calling for the creation of a baby screen time risk assessment in collaboration with policymakers, healthcare workers and early years practitioners. This could help services to provide targeted support, guide families toward interactive alternatives, and intervene where developmental vulnerabilities may be emerging. 

Report co-lead Carmen Clayton, Professor of Family and Cultural Dynamics at Leeds Trinity University, said: “Screen time is heavily interwoven into the lives of many families throughout the day. Caregivers are calling for more guidance, but professional support is limited. The Government must consider how to engage with families better about problematic screen use, whilst being sensitive to the fear of judgement that many parents face when opening up about such issues.” 

Tips for parents 

More research is needed into which strategies are most effective for parents and caregivers wanting to reduce and cut out babies’ screen time. But the following strategies from the review have evidenced benefits:  

• Taking children outdoors to spend time in nature prevents screen time and can benefit physical development and eye health. 
• Avoiding using screens at mealtimes could correlate with healthier eating habits. 
• Access to non-digital toys is beneficial for reducing screen time and improving development. 
• Spending time in the physical presence of others – meeting, interacting and playing with other people – supports social development. 

A wake-up call for society 

The review also found that parent and caregiver screen time correlates with babies’ screen time, but the researchers emphasise that parents should not be the focus of blame or criticism here. Digital screens are embedded in our lives – from working, to buying groceries, accessing healthcare and communicating with friends and family – so passive screen exposure is inevitable. 

Families are navigating this challenge without the information and support they need. The responsibility cannot rest solely on their shoulders.  

Dame Andrea Leadsom, Founder of 1001 Critical Days Foundation

To have healthy human futures, the researchers say we need to sustainably change our relationships with digital screens – including smartphones, tablets, TVs and games consoles – as a society. The first steps to societal change are focusing on understanding adult screen time thresholds, and reconsidering any guidance on screen time for children. 

Dame Andrea Leadsom, Founder of 1001 Critical Days Foundation, said: "This landmark review is a wake-up call. The evidence increasingly suggests that screens offer limited benefits for babies and may carry significant risks during the first 1001 days, the most important period of human development. Parents must not be blamed for a problem they did not create. 

"Screens are now part of everyday life and many families are navigating this challenge without the information and support they need. The responsibility cannot rest solely on their shoulders.  

"That is why every family should have access to a Best Start Family Hub, where they could access trusted advice and practical help during their baby's earliest years. 

"Technology companies must play their part too. Parents should not be presented with content that is labelled or promoted as suitable for babies when the evidence points to the contrary. It is time for a more honest approach to how content is promoted. 

“Every baby should experience the best start in life. Helping parents navigate the digital world is an essential part of making that ambition a reality.” 

The report itself is not peer-reviewed but the full list of peer-reviewed studies referenced is available in the report.   

Two weeks of focused journaling = months of depression relief in young adults

 Journaling about one’s identities from childhood through early adulthood may offer an accessible, low-cost way to help young adults struggling with depression, according to new Cornell psychology research.

In a study involving more than 100 people aged 18 to 29 experiencing moderate to severe depression, participants who reflected on their life story reported significantly reduced symptoms two months later, compared to a control group.

As a possible complement to therapy, the researchers said, the two-week journaling exercise could be a promising strategy for adults open to reflecting on their past, present and future identities – but perhaps less so for those prone to ruminating about negative experiences.

“Something about journaling based on your identities and connecting them through time – throughout your life story – appears to be psychologically beneficial,” said Christopher Davis, a doctoral candidate in the field of developmental psychology affiliated with the Purpose and Identity Processes Lab. “Connecting yourself back to yourself in such an explicit manner, and thinking about how you can take that forward, seems to be therapeutic.”

Davis is the first author of “Strengthening Self-Continuity to Reduce Depressive Symptoms and Derailment: A Multiphasic Mixed-Methods Randomized Controlled Trial,” published in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Co-authors are Emma Levinbook ’26; Sydnie Spearman, a therapist with LifeStance Health; Cassondra Lyman, a doctoral candidate in the field of social psychology and member of the Better Outcomes Laboratory; and Anthony Burrow, the Ferris Family Associate Professor of Life Course Studies in the Department of Psychology and College of Human Ecology, and director of the Purpose and Identity Processes Lab.

The new research advances prior work finding that people who can form a thematically coherent narrative about their lives may be psychologically stronger, compared to people whose life stories feel more fragmented.

Focusing on young adults – the fastest-growing group among the 29% of U.S. adults reporting they’d been diagnosed with depression in 2023 – the study tested whether bolstering a sense of identity and continuity could reduce depression and “derailment,” a perceived mismatch between current and past identities.

A first study phase measured depression, derailment and self-continuity among nearly 260 participants recruited online. From that group, 111 qualified to participate in the journaling project because they had at least moderate depression symptoms, based on a commonly used scale. Half were randomly assigned to a control group that wrote about everyday activities, like a trip to the grocery store, and the other half to the experimental group.

Over two weeks, the latter group responded to five prompts asking about their motivations, passions or goals at different life stages – early childhood, middle school, high school, college and their desired future – and how those experiences affected their current direction. Participants summarized their identity during each period in a word – examples included “sapling,” “determined” and “inquisitive” – and reviewing those words later appeared to be a powerful experience for many, Davis said. Symptoms were measured during the program and both two weeks and two months after completion.

Results showed that two months later, the group that reflected on their identities at different points in time on average reported feeling significantly less depressed, less derailed and more connected to their past selves than the control group, which returned to baseline levels. That suggested the reported improvement was related not just to the act of journaling but to its content.

In a final phase, the researchers investigated why many participants experienced fewer depressive symptoms, but about a quarter saw no change. Their analysis of journal entries showed that those making the biggest gains had engaged in “reflective self-evaluation,” responding more introspectively, including recalling some positive aspects of their past, like a college semester of self-discovery. Those who benefitted least displayed “ruminative brooding,” with minimalist journal entries emphasizing more negative experiences – a high school audition that heightened feelings of isolation.

“More introspective respondents did something we don’t typically do in daily life that is more, ‘Go, go, go, what’s the next step,’ rather than, ‘Where did I come from, and what parts of that story do I want to bring with me into the future,’” Davis said. “Taking a step back and looking through your life may help you realize, ‘I’m actually not that far off track.’”

The team said additional research could fine-tune the journaling methods and address limits to their study. But they said the intervention as is could give clinicians a useful tool alongside structured care.

“This work demonstrates an accessible, actionable way to address this growing issue that we see in emerging adults of simultaneous increases in depression and loss of identity,” Davis said. “If someone is willing to do this, these journaling prompts could offer a promising avenue for symptom relief for a vast number of people.”

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Journal

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

DOI

10.1037/ccp0001006 

K–3 Teachers Build Reading Comprehension Using Evidence-Based Strategies

 

The Institute of Education Sciences has released the Toolkit for Teaching Reading Comprehension in Early Elementary Grades. Developed by REL West, this Toolkit is designed to support a schoolwide effort to improve reading comprehension for students in kindergarten through third grade. Developing literacy skills in the early grades provides a foundation for later academic success—yet recent NAEP scores indicate that many students across the United States continue to struggle. The Toolkit includes the following: Five online professional learning modules engaging K–3 teachers through a Learning Cycle of Learn, Plan, Apply, Reflect, and Refine—with videos, tools, and classroom-ready resources. A School Leader Guide with an overview, administrator role guidance, and teacher support tips. A Facilitator Guide and online modules to help coaches organize professional learning and encourage integration of WWC recommendations. Family and caregiver resources to extend reading comprehension support at home. The Toolkit is designed to help educators implement practices recommended by the What Works Clearinghouse practice guide, Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It is designed as a flexible 5–7-month professional learning experience, taking approximately 26 hours spread over 17–26 weeks. To access the Toolkit, please visit https://ies.ed.gov/regional-educational-laboratories-toolkits.

AI companionship poses risks for teen development

 

As teenagers increasingly turn to artificial intelligence chatbots for advice about friendships, family conflicts and romantic ties, researchers are raising concerns that the technology could disturb how young people learn to navigate human relationships.

AI-powered conversational tools such as ChatGPT, Replika, Claude and Character.AI are becoming a common source of emotional support for teenagers. Writing in The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, researchers from Arizona State University say the technology offers immediate, nonjudgmental guidance and has potential to benefit emotional development. But without safeguards and careful design, the authors warn that reliance on these systems may bypass opportunities for young people to develop critical relationship skills through person-to-person interactions.

“The technologies are developing super-fast, faster than we can keep up with as scientists, faster than governance and policy can keep up with,” said lead author Thao Ha, an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at ASU. Her co-authors are psychology doctoral student Jennifer Figueroa, post-doctoral research scholar Taren McGray, and youth advisory board members Jessica Ramirez and Susana Ortega, who are 16- and 17-year-old high school students in Tucson.

Students who met with the researchers described how they and their peers often use AI to seek advice about personal and often sensitive relationship challenges.

“I don't think I really expected for so many teens to have the same concerns or thoughts when it came to AI,” said Ortega, a high school senior. “We all mostly had concerns about how AI was replacing actual human connection and how it limits a lot of those needs that humans have that cannot be replaced with a computer artificial intelligence.”

Adolescence is a crucial period for learning skills such as emotional regulation, conflict resolution, perspective-taking and boundary-setting, Ha said. Those competencies are typically developed through emotionally charged interactions with peers, romantic partners and family members, she said.

“People don't realize that relational learning happens during the teenage years and that these moments of social connection are little building blocks that become bigger things that will benefit you throughout life,” Ha said. “You really need those building blocks, so you actually learn the skills that you need to thrive in your relationships.”

Rampant use of AI

The researchers point to survey data showing that AI use among teens is widespread. A Pew Research Center study found that 64% of U.S. adolescents use interactional AI, while research from the Center for Democracy & Technology found that 42% have used AI chatbots for friendship-related purposes and 19% for romantic relationships.

Teenagers told the ASU researchers that current approaches to regulating AI, such as age verification, are ineffective and do not reflect their needs. Others described how AI use is becoming difficult to avoid, with one teen explaining that “there is almost no way not to use it anymore”, limiting the ability to use it intentionally.

Ha and colleagues highlighted two significant risks:

The first, what they call “relational displacement,” occurs when adolescents substitute AI interactions for conversations with other people. The authors argue that avoiding difficult discussions with friends, family members or romantic partners may limit opportunities to develop relationship skills that help protect against depression, anxiety and loneliness.

Youth participants cited examples ranging from seeking chatbot validation after arguments with partners to using AI for homework help instead of reaching out to classmates, potentially reducing everyday opportunities for social connection.

The second concern, termed “maladaptive relational learning,” involves adolescents developing unrealistic expectations about human relationships. Because AI systems often provide immediate responses and consistent validation, it may reinforce youths’ unhealthy, fixed ideas about relationships and at the same time young users may come to expect similar behavior from friends and romantic partners, the authors said. Over time, that could reinforce unhealthy relationship patterns and increase vulnerability to rejection, dating violence and mental health problems.

“With artificial intelligence, it's programmed to like you and it knows what to say to satisfy what you're feeding it,” Ortega said. “If you're given full satisfaction on everything, you don't have learning experience with challenges or obstacles.”

Gleaning benefits

To understand more fully how digital technologies are reshaping young minds, Ha is leading a major study funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. The researchers are recruiting 300 adolescents and their romantic partners to follow over 18 months to understand when, how, and in which contexts digital interactions benefit or harm their relationships, mental health, and academic achievement. Shared data from teens’ mobile devices will give the researchers real-time digital interactions to analyze and gain insights into the role of technology in teen relationships and mental health.

In the Lancet article, Ha and co-authors acknowledge that AI can provide meaningful benefits, particularly for adolescents who face barriers to traditional support systems. Teens who are rural, disabled, LGBTQIA+, or have limited access to counseling may find AI offers accessible information and guidance when other resources are unavailable.

“AI is cheaper than a therapist, it makes information more accessible and readily available for those who may not seek support,” one teen told the ASU researchers.

When designed with developmental considerations, AI could scaffold self-reflection and redirect adolescents toward human engagement rather than substitution, the researchers said.

Rather than discouraging AI use altogether, the authors call for more research into how interactions with AI affect adolescent development over time. They also urge schools, communities and policymakers to invest in relationship education, counseling services and opportunities for young people to discuss relationships openly.

“Supporting adolescent mental health will require ensuring that AI systems are used in ways that support relational learning,” the authors wrote, “while also protecting the real-world experiences through which young people learn to love and care for others.”

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Journal

The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health

DOI

10.1016/S2352-4642(26)00166-5 

School performance linked to youth criminal justice

 

Students whose performance at school declines relative to their peers are at a higher risk of contact with the criminal justice system, a new study by King’s College London has found.

The study, one of the largest of its kind and published today in the Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, looked at 4.3 million pupils in England born between 1990 and 1997. The study found changing school performance associated with later first-time offending, pinpointing this as an opportunity for intervention.

Researchers found that pupils whose school performance declined relative to their peers between Year 2 and Year 11 were at higher risk of getting involved in the criminal justice system.

Dr Alice Wickersham, Research Fellow at King’s College London and Research Fellow at ADR UK (Administrative Data Research UK), said, “What we’ve found are “signals” in routinely collected school records that help us identify when pupils might need support. If we treat school performance as a measure of not just academic ability, but also as an indicator of pupils’ wider circumstances, we could find windows of opportunity to notice early when pupils are struggling and offer them appropriate support. This might not just be at school – pupils could be facing a range of difficulties, like with their mental health, their home life, and their friendships. Supporting them more proactively could positively impact their own lives and benefit society more widely.”

The researchers obtained school performance data from the National Pupil Database (NPD), and crime data from the Police National Computer (PNC).

Pupil school performance was measured through statutory tests done at ages 7, 11 and 16. Pupils were divided into 5 groups according to how they performed in these tests: Average Consistent (generally performed at or above average throughout), Average/High Increasing (generally performed around average in Year 2, but performed above average by Year 11), Average Declining (generally performed around average in Year 2, but performed below average by Year 11), Low Increasing (generally performed below average in Year 2, but reached average levels by Year 11), and Low Consistent (generally performed below average throughout).

For contact with the criminal justice system, researchers looked at the PNC for records of first convictions or cautions received at two different time points – before the end of secondary school, and during young adulthood (after leaving school, up to and including age 21). All offence types were considered, including serious violence.

In total, around 8.8% of the pupils (369,557) were first convicted or cautioned before the end of Year 11, and 5.0% (210,936) were first convicted or cautioned in young adulthood. But within this, the researchers found that offending risk varied according to school performance trajectories.

Among pupils who showed declines in their school performance relative to their peers, 1 in 3 received a first offence conviction or caution before the end of secondary school, and 1 in 10 received a first offence conviction or caution during young adulthood.

Pupils who performed consistently below average were also at higher risk of offending, although not as much as the group showing relative declines. Notably, among pupils who performed at below average levels towards the beginning of school, their odds of offending during young adulthood were 53% higher if their relative performance remained low, but only 4% higher if their relative performance improved.

Stephen Scott, Professor of Child Health and Behaviour at King’s College London and co-author of the study, pointed out, “Early intervention through parenting groups up to the age of 12 has powerful and long-lasting effects in reducing the antisocial behaviour that precedes criminality and also boosts academic attainment in disadvantaged populations. Moreover, with new evidence on the effectiveness of online parenting programmes, these could be disseminated widely.”

Policy-Assigned Teacher Observations and Student Discipline Outcomes

 This study is the first to estimate main, mediated, and moderated relationships between policy-assigned observations and various student discipline outcomes (SDOs). Also examined were the relationships between SDOs and observations conducted. 

The data suggest that the percentage of students who receive at least one SDO decreases as policy assigns schools an additional 25 observations and that in-school suspension reductions drive this relationship. Improvements in teachers’ classroom management skills mediate some SDO reductions as do the degree of prior-year SDOs and the average teacher’s years of experience.

While policy-assigned observations determined by teacher human capital measures may reduce SDOs, observations conducted for unobserved reasons may not.

Adolescent Suicidality After State-Level Total Abortion Bans

 

Complete study

Suicide is the second leading cause of death among individuals aged 10 to 24 years in the US, and adolescent suicidality has been identified as a major psychiatric and public health concern.^1,2 In response, considerable attention has been devoted to identifying modifiable risk factors associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviors.³ Recent research has emphasized the role of structural and policy-related determinants that influence access to resources and opportunities, exposure to stressors, and perceived control over major life events.^4,5

In this study, we examine whether state-level changes in abortion access represent a potential structural contributor to suicidality among female adolescents. Specifically, we focus on total abortion bans implemented in multiple states following the 2022 US Supreme Court decision in Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization (hereafter, Dobbs). Total abortion bans effectively eliminate abortion access, since the few legal exceptions that exist are narrowly defined and infrequently applied.^6,7

Female adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to these laws because they are directly affected by pregnancy and often face disproportionate financial and logistical barriers to accessing abortion care.^8,9 In addition, loss of abortion access may affect adolescent mental health by increasing uncertainty and reducing perceived control over future life trajectories, consistent with evidence linking abortion denial to adverse mental health and socioeconomic outcomes.¹⁰ Adolescence is a critical period in psychological development, marked by heightened emotional reactivity and increased sensitivity to environmental stressors.^11,12 As a result, the potential influence of reproductive health policies may be amplified during this developmental stage.

In this cross-sectional study using difference-in-differences analysis of high school students, implementation of state total abortion bans was significantly associated with suicidal ideation among female students, with a 4.3– to 4.4–percentage point increase compared with changes in states without bans. Estimates for suicide attempts among female students were similar in direction and magnitude, ranging from 3.2 to 3.9 percentage points, although they were less precisely estimated. There were no corresponding changes among male students, and event-study analyses showed no evidence of differential prepolicy trends for either sex. These findings are consistent with prior evidence linking restrictive abortion policies to adverse mental health outcomes among adult females, while providing new evidence regarding adolescent suicidality, a clinically urgent and understudied outcome in the post-Dobbs policy landscape.