How preschool teachers themselves grow and improve over time

Preschool teachers are the first educators to shape a child’s earliest learning experiences, laying the foundation for their academic, emotional, and social development. Despite the importance of their role in shaping a child’s lifelong learning trajectory, preschool teaching as a profession remains undervalued and frequently overlooked—especially when it comes to understanding how preschool teachers themselves grow and improve over time. Moreover, while other education levels benefit from established frameworks for teacher development, early childhood educators are frequently excluded from such discourse, both academically and institutionally.

To better understand and address this challenge, Associate Professor Akiko Hayashi of the Faculty of Business and Commerce at Keio University, Japan, offers a rare cross-cultural perspective on this issue. In this study published online in Comparative Education on May 14, 2025, she delves into how different systems of professional development—shaped by national culture, policy, and practice—either support or hinder the professional growth of preschool teachers in different countries. Using a method known as video-cued ethnographic interviewing, Dr. Hayashi conducted a longitudinal and comparative study of preschool teacher development in Japan, China, and the United States. This study is a part of a larger research that looks at how teachers change with experience and the factors that help them change.

“The greatest challenge of this research is to provide compelling evidence that preschool teaching is a legitimate profession requiring a specific set of professional competencies. Unfortunately, in the academic world, preschool teaching is not always recognized as a field of professional expertise. This lack of recognition often leads to its undervaluation and a limited level of interest among researchers,” says Dr. Hayashi, while elaborating more on the rationale behind this study.

Dr. Hayashi conducted interviews with six preschool teachers—two from each country—first in 2002 at the start of their careers and again in 2015, after they had become experienced educators. These teachers were also interviewed alongside senior mentors, reflecting on their professional growth. She expanded the study with group interviews involving teachers and directors who were unfamiliar with the original participants. In total, the study draws on the perspectives of 112 educators—37 in Japan, 32 in China, and 43 in the United States—offering a comparative look at how preschool teachers grow professionally across different cultures and systems.

The findings bring to light how cultural norms distinctly influence professional growth. In Japan, teacher development is grounded in hands-on classroom experience and communal learning. Instead of relying on formal training or workshops, most learning happens through hands-on practice and reflection. A unique practice in Japanese preschools is ennai kenshū, or in-house study groups, where teachers regularly meet to discuss classroom activities and exchange ideas. Guidance is subtle, and professional growth is driven by a strong moral commitment to students and colleagues, not by external rewards.

In China, professional development is more structured and hierarchical. Teachers are mentored, evaluated, and expected to adopt tested practices. Growth is encouraged through rankings, competitions, and formal evaluations, creating an environment where extrinsic motivation plays a major role. The system fosters rapid skill development and career advancement through clear pathways and institutional oversight.

In the United States, teacher development is highly self-directed. Many American teachers expressed concern that top-down efforts to standardize teaching limited their creativity and autonomy. Instead, they often take the initiative to improve their practice through informal methods, such as observing experienced peers, experimenting with new approaches, and enrolling in additional courses. While some pursue further education to meet job requirements, many do so out of a genuine desire to improve their teaching skills. Although external factors like job security, salary increases, and credential requirements influence their careers, Dr. Hayashi finds that many teachers are primarily driven by a personal commitment to becoming better educators.

Thus, while the collaborative, culturally rooted practices emphasizing group-based learning make preschool teacher development most stable in Japan, the reliance on an individual-focused, extrinsically motivated system makes it less stable in the US. China, with its authority-led, master-apprentice model, falls in the middle, making preschool teacher development moderately stable.

These findings offer valuable insights into how preschool teachers experience and interpret their professional growth. They emphasize that there is no universal model for teacher development. Instead, successful strategies must align with the cultural values and institutional structures unique to each country. Moreover, as Dr. Hayashi says, “Beyond its academic value, this study also has practical significance. It can serve as a useful reference in shaping education policy—not only in preschool settings but across the broader educational landscape.”

 

***

Reference
DOI: 10.1080/03050068.2025.2503076  

  

A High-School Exit Exam in Science: Consequences

 Preparing students for science, technology, and engineering careers is an urgent state policy challenge. This study examines the design and roll-out of a science testing requirement for high-school graduation in Massachusetts. 

While science test performance has improved over time for all demographic subgroups, there was rising inequality in failure rates and retest success. English learners, almost 8% of all test-takers, account for 53% of students who never pass. There were large differences by family income, even conditional on previous test scores, that raise equity implications. However barely passing the exam increases high-school graduation and college outcomes of students near the score threshold, particularly for females and students from higher-income families.

Learning music helps young people flourish

Learning music helps young people flourish

• Music education is emerging as a wellbeing strategy to boost young people’s confidence and strengthen relationships.
• New ECU research calls for schools to treat learning music as essential for mental health, not just a nice-to-have activity.
• Experts say schools that fail to provide music education are missing a key opportunity to enhance student wellbeing and engagement.

A new study from ECU’s School of Education has found that learning music plays a critical yet often overlooked role in enhancing the wellbeing of children and adolescents, calling for a stronger focus on music education in schools and communities.

Led by experts from Edith Cowan University (ECU), the research systematically reviewed existing studies on music learning and its impact on wellbeing, revealing that learning music offers significant social, emotional and educational benefits for young people.

While music listening and participation have long been recognised for their positive effects on wellbeing, the study suggests that learning music amplifies these benefits.

Not just extracurricular

Lead author of the research, Dr Jason Goopy, said learning music can bring multiple benefits to children and adolescents.

“Music education in schools goes beyond music appreciation and learning an instrument,” Dr Goopy said.

“It can strengthen self-confidence, social connections and engagement in education.

“We found that music education can foster a sense of belonging, improve emotional awareness and encourage perseverance, all of which contribute to a young person's overall wellbeing.”

The review examined 30 international academic sources and found that almost all reported positive wellbeing outcomes associated with learning music.

Dr Goopy argues that these findings require us to rethink the place and purpose of music in schools.

“Our findings highlight the need for music education to be recognised as a needed wellbeing strategy in schools to support young people”, he said.

“Music classes should not be viewed as an ‘extracurricular option’. They are essential for supporting whole child development.”

The study identified three core wellbeing outcomes of music learning: individual, social and educational.

On an individual level, students reported improvements in self-confidence, emotional regulation and personal fulfillment.

Dr Goopy found music helped students build relationships, develop communication skills and foster a sense of belonging, as well as enhancing engagement and motivation to learn.

“Music learning creates opportunities for self-expression, collaboration and achievement, all of which contribute to students living well and healthy,” Dr Goopy said.

Building student wellbeing

The study identified effective approaches in promoting student wellbeing, including shared and active music making, creating musical products, context-specific artistic excellence and empowerment, and a secure and fun environment.

“At a time when mental health concerns for young people are increasing, it is crucial that schools take advantage of the powerful benefits that music education provides.”

Despite these findings, the study noted that large-scale investigations into the impact of music learning on wellbeing remain scarce, with most existing studies small in scale.

Dr Goopy also called for further interdisciplinary research to develop standardised methods of measuring wellbeing outcomes in music education.

“This research sends a clear message: learning music is more than just an artistic indulgence,” he said.

“It actively contributes to young people's ability to thrive.

“Every child needs access to quality, sequential and ongoing school music education delivered by confident and capable teachers.

“The opportunity to enhance wellbeing from learning music should be available to every child regardless of what school they attend.”

Goopy, J., & MacArthur, S. L. R. (2025). Music learning and school-aged children’s and adolescents’ wellbeing: A scoping review. Research Studies in Music Education, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X251323562

Education research groups urge immediate action on civil rights data collection

 

 Eleven leading education research organizations are calling on the U.S. Department of Education to take immediate action to finalize the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) for the 2025–26 school year. In a letter sent July 8 to Secretary Linda McMahon and Acting Assistant Secretary Craig Trainor, the groups warned that the timeline for approving and implementing the collection has become critically short.

The CRDC is an essential federal tool that gathers data on educational access and equity in every public school district in the country. These data are crucial for understanding student experiences and educational opportunities across race, gender, disability status, and other key demographics. The research community, school districts, and families all rely on the CRDC to support student access and participation in curricula and programs, educational outcomes, and other levers of educational opportunity that are used for continuous improvement and evaluation purposes.

Despite early steps toward finalizing the 2025–26 data collection last fall and winter, the Education Department withdrew the most recent proposed collection in February 2025. No public updates have followed.

“In order to report quality data to the CRDC, school districts need sufficient time to prepare their student information systems to track and record the required information,” the groups wrote. “Ideally, school districts would know well before the school year begins what they will be required to report to the CRDC after the school year ends. But, at a minimum, school districts should be told early in the school year — particularly if new data elements are added or definitions are being revised.”

Signatories of the letter include the leaders of the American Educational Research Association, Association for Education Finance and Policy, Division for Research at the Council for Exceptional Children, International Society of the Learning Sciences, Literacy Research Association, NARST: A global organization for improving science education through research, National Academy of Education, Society for Research in Child Development, Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, and University Council for Educational Administration.

Under the Paperwork Reduction Act, federal data collections must undergo a final 30-day public comment period followed by a review period by the Office of Management and Budget. That process alone could push final approval past September, creating major logistical challenges for school districts.

“We urge immediate action in order to implement this essential data collection. Simply the timetable has no more flexibility,” the organizations state. “The Office for Civil Rights must restart the process by immediately publishing the proposed Civil Rights Data Collection for the 2025–26 school year for a 30-day comment period.”

Green spaces boost children’s cognitive skills

Access to nature promotes physical and mental health, and it is vital for children’s social and emotional development. Outdoor activities also influence family dynamics, helping to reduce stress and encourage connections. A new study from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign examines how green spaces and outdoor structures near the family residence interact with other factors in the household environment to influence executive functioning in early childhood.

“We looked at what people have outside their home or across the street, where they can just walk out their door, and we focused on children’s access to these facilities before age two,” said lead author Samantha Iwinski, postdoctoral research associate in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies, part of the College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences at Illinois.

“The goal was to investigate how those environmental factors shaped children’s cognitive abilities as well as the home environment, because it's all part of a holistic system of influences.” 

Iwinski and her colleagues used data from 435 families who were part of the STRONG Kids2 project, a longitudinal study of families and children in the Midwestern United States. The researchers combined this dataset with information from Google Earth on green and outdoor spaces such as grass, trees, sandboxes, decks, or outdoor storage next to the family residence. The study included families in different housing types, including apartments, individual homes, and farms.

Iwinski focused on the effect of green spaces and family dynamics on children’s executive function (EF); that is, cognitive processes critical for adaptive behavior. She distinguished between “cold” EF, which refers to the ability to control one’s attention, behavior, and thoughts, and “hot” EF, which indicates capacity for emotional regulation.

“We found that having trees, a sandbox, or outdoor storage space before age 2 was associated with better cold EF at 4 years old,” she said. “Trees and a sandbox allow for sensory interaction and are part of a nature playscape, providing opportunities to touch and feel and potentially climb. Outdoor storage space could mean there are toys and games that promote outdoor activities.”

Having an outdoor sitting area or living on a farm were associated with better hot executive function at 4 and 5 years of age, respectively. 

“This could relate to socializing and connection. Farming communities are often close-knit. Having a deck provides an opportunity to sit together and talk,” she noted.

Overall, the researchers found that higher levels of green space were related to lower levels of household chaos, which indicates that family-based nature activities can be restorative for both children and adults.

Household chaos – such as a noisy environment and lack of consistent routines – at ages 2 and 4 years was associated with worse EF at those ages.

“But we found that higher household chaos at earlier time points actually resulted in better EF at 4 years of age. This could be because children develop resilience and adaptability, learning to regulate themselves in a chaotic environment,” Iwinski said.

The results underscore the importance of providing access to green spaces and encouraging outdoor activities. Iwiski noted that some parents may not feel safe to go outside and pass their concerns on to their children.

“Research shows that children in low-income families have the most nature deprivation, so it would be important to implement policies that help underserved communities to have more green space and ways to interact available, and to ensure everyone feels welcome and safe in outdoor environments,” she said. 

Parents and educators can also encourage children to participate in outdoor activities.

“Parents can talk about what to do, for example, ‘we can play with rocks today, tomorrow we can do sand,’ and show their kids what it means to be outside. It’s not just about helping your child, but also yourself, because outdoor activities promote mental health and restoration for everyone.”

The paper, “Growing Minds: The Role of Family Residence Green Spaces and Household Chaos on Children's Executive Function,” is published in Children, Youth and Environments [DOI:10.1353/cye.2025.a959179].

Education exports help offset U.S. trade deficit

 —but new tariff and visa policies threaten gains

As U.S. policymakers increase tariffs on goods, particularly those imported from China—a new study from the University of California San Diego School of Global Policy and Strategy finds the opposite may be needed to protect one of the country’s most powerful economic exports: higher education.

The study, forthcoming in the Review of Economics and Statistics, focuses on China’s 2001 entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), which dramatically boosted Chinese exports to the U.S. and household incomes in certain Chinese cities—making American college tuition suddenly affordable for many families.

“In a very real sense, international students are reversing the trade deficit,” said Gaurav Khanna, associate professor of economics at UC San Diego’s School of Global Policy and Strategy and coauthor of the study. “America imports goods from China but exports education in return. That has been a win for both economies—and one that a trade war risks unraveling.”

Analyzing visa records, trade data, and city-level economics, the researchers show that Chinese cities, like Qingyang and Shantou, that had more exposure to WTO-related tariff reductions sent significantly more students to the U.S., compared to cities with less exposure, like Wuwei and Lincang. In fact, a 10-percentage point increase in trade exposure generated 34 more students per million city residents, accounting for about 40% of the surge in Chinese student enrollment between 2002 and 2013.

However, tariff policies that are designed to slow China’s manufacturing sectors will reverse this trend.

Billions in Tuition Revenue at Risk  

The researchers estimate that the tariffs levied on Chinese imports during the first Trump administration led to a 25% drop in students from China studying in the U.S., costing U.S. universities $1.1 billion annually in revenue.

With higher and more tariffs in the second Trump administration, the impacts will likely be larger —and increased visa restrictions are expected to make matters worse.

That figure doesn’t include the broader economic contributions international students make—such as spending on housing, transportation, and local services—or the long-term benefits to the U.S. workforce and innovation ecosystem.

“Policymakers often talk about soybeans, oil and steel,” Khanna added. “But education contributes more to the U.S. economy than any of those. It’s an export we ignore at our own peril.”

How International Student Enrollment Has Helped Offset State Funding Cuts

The composition of Chinese students has shifted over time. Once dominated by graduate-level STEM enrollments—many of them scholarship-supported—the post-WTO boom analyzed in the study (2000 to 2013) saw growth in undergraduate students studying business and social sciences, often paying full sticker price.

Khanna points to his previous research showing how nonresident tuition benefited U.S. universities suffering declines in state funding. For example, between 1996 and 2012, a 10% reduction in state appropriations was associated with an increase in foreign enrollment of 12% at public research universities. 

“Universities had to choose between increasing tuition levels and cutting expenditures—such as decreasing academic offerings to in-state students, or enrolling a greater proportion of students who pay out-of-state tuition,” he said.

Many public U.S. colleges, including the University of California, turned to international student tuition, rather than sharply increasing the tuition of in-state students in order to make up for shortfalls in state funding.

However, Khanna notes there has been a dramatic deceleration in international student flows in recent years. Yearly growth of Chinese students in the U.S. averaged about 22% between 2007 and 2013, but has since fallen to under 5% per year. 

How the Exchange of Education has Historically Been One of the U.S.’ Biggest Advantages 

The authors argue that understanding the relationship between trade and migration is crucial—not only for universities but for U.S. foreign and economic policy writ large.

“There’s often an assumption that trade and immigration are substitutes,” Khanna said. “What we found is that they can be powerful complements. Trade helped create a middle class in China that saw U.S. education as both a pathway and a product.”

In 2019, education exports added $45 billion to the U.S. economy. Today, with student inflows slowing and competition rising from other countries, the study offers a timely reminder of what’s at stake.

“America’s edge has always been its universities,” Khanna said. “If we make it harder for international students to come here, we’re not just closing the door on students—we’re closing the door on one of our biggest trade advantages.” 

The study was co-authored by Kevin Shih of City University of New York–Queens College, Ariel Weinberger of George Washington University, Mingzhi Xu of Peking University, and Miaojie Yu of Liaoning University. 

Does grading students at earlier ages increase the risk of mental disorders in adolescents?

Research in Health Economics indicates that introducing school grades—with A as the highest grade and F as a failing grade—at younger ages may negatively affect children’s mental health.

In Sweden, students traditionally received individual grades beginning in eighth grade (around 14 years of age), but in the fall of 2012, a reform shifted the introduction of grades to sixth grade (around age 12).

By comparing sociodemographic and clinical data on 524,093 children in Sweden in grades 5 through 9 before and after the reform, investigators found that girls exposed to earlier grading were more likely to be diagnosed with internalizing disorders, such as depression and anxiety, by the end of compulsory school—especially female students with low to moderate academic achievement.

Evidence also suggested that both girls and boys exposed to earlier grading face an increased risk of being diagnosed with alcohol‐related disorders.

“Like many countries, Sweden has moved toward more testing and tighter grading, repeatedly revising its assessment system,” said corresponding author Anna Linder, PhD, of Lund University, in Sweden. “Our results show that these changes can have detrimental effects on children's mental health. Grades aren’t inherently harmful, but their design should carefully consider that children vary in when—and how—they can turn feedback into healthy growth.”

URL upon publication: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hec.4982