The Contribution of College Majors to Gender and Racial Earnings Differences

 Gender and racial/ethnic gaps in labor market earnings remain large, even among college-goers. Cross-gender and race/ethnic differences in choice of and returns to college major are potentially important contributors. Following Texas public high school graduates for up to 20 years through college and the labor market, this study assesses gender and racial differences in college major choices and the consequences of these choices. 

Women and underrepresented minorities are less likely than men, Whites, and Asians to major in high earning fields like business, economics, engineering, and computer science, however we also show that they experience lower returns to these majors. 

Differences in major-specific returns relative to liberal arts explain about one quarter of the gender, White-Black, and White-Hispanic (but not White-Asian) earnings gaps among four-year college students and become larger contributors to earnings gaps than differential major distributions as workers age. 

The study presents suggestive evidence that differences in occupation choices within field are a key driver of the differences in returns across groups. The work shines light on the roles that college major choice and returns by gender and race contribute to inequality.

Also see 

College Major Choice, Payoffs, and Gender Gaps

This paper studies how college major choices shape earnings and fertility outcomes. Using administrative data that link students' preferences, random assignment to majors, and post-college outcomes, we estimate the causal pecuniary and non-pecuniary returns to different fields of study. 

The authors document substantial heterogeneity in these returns across majors and show that such variation helps explain gender gaps in labor market outcomes: women place greater weight on balancing career and family in their major choices, and these preference differences account for about 30% of the gender earnings gap among college graduates. 

The authors find that gender quotas in high-return fields can significantly reduce representation and earnings gaps with minimal impacts on efficiency and aggregate fertility.

Early intervention helps most autistic children acquire spoken language

After receiving evidence-based early interventions, roughly two-thirds of non-speaking kids with autism speak single words, and approximately half develop more complex language, according to a new study led by researchers at Drexel University’s A.J. Drexel Autism Institute. The findings, which offer insights that might help improve success rates for the kids who remain non-speaking or minimally speaking (e.g. not combining words to form short phrases) after therapy, were recently published in the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology.

About one in 31 kids in the United States are autistic, according to a 2025 CDC report, a number that has risen in recent years due to improved screening, more understanding and awareness. About one in three kids with autism are estimated to be nonspeaking. Although spoken language can vary considerably among kids with autism, those who do not gain spoken language beyond preschool years are at increased risk of disabilities later in life. Therefore, language skills are often a major target for early child development.

In the first large scale study to look at how many kids do not experience these gains, and the factors influencing success, the team used data across multiple studies on 707 autistic preschoolers who completed different types of evidence-based early interventions from six months to two years for at least 10 hours per week designed to teach spoken language, among other skills.
The participants who did not see success from intervention started with lower scores in cognitive, social, adaptive and motor imitation measures compared to their peers who developed spoken language. The team also found an association between development of spoken language and modifiable intervention factors, such as age at intervention start and intervention duration. The researchers suggest that these interventions are not one size fits all and individuals should be monitored for progress with adjustments made periodically to help language development.

These interventions remain evidence-supported ways of teaching language to nonspeaking kids with autism, authors say, noting that about half of the kids who had single or no words at the start were combining words by the conclusion of the intervention.

“When parents ask me if their child should do these interventions to gain spoken language, the answer after doing this study is still yes,” said Giacomo Vivanti, PhD, an associate professor and leader of Early Detection and Intervention in the Autism Institute at Drexel’s Dornsife School of Public Health. “What our study is telling us is that even when we’re implementing practices that are evidence-based, some children remain behind. So, we should carefully monitor the response of each child and see what to add or change to tailor therapy for the individual as needed.”

The researchers found that duration of the intervention, rather than intensity of the intervention, was associated with outcomes in the children who are nonverbal. Therefore, it is possible that, instead of packing in as many hours as possible working with a child 20-40 hours each week to facilitate language in a therapy room, more success might be achieved by doing the therapy for a longer term for more opportunities to practice skills, but with fewer hours per week.

“It’s imperative to track and monitor progress, even when the therapy meets your evidence-based practice criteria,” Vivanti said. “You need to monitor and be ready to take action, and adjust the strategies that you are using, the goals that you are targeting and the duration of the intervention to meet the needs of each child. For some children the ‘standard’
version of an intervention might be sufficient to support the acquisition of spoken language. For others, maybe a longer duration or more focus on preverbal skills that are foundational to communication is appropriate.”

“For young autistic children, often the highest priority is figuring out ways of supporting their communication, both their understanding and use of spoken language as well as other important behaviors, such as gestures,” said co-author Catherine Lord, PhD, distinguished professor at UCLA. “Many well-established interventions have reported improvements in test scores and parent report measures. However, it is important to remember that not all children learn at the same rate, and to be sure that we know when and how to shift strategies when progress isn't happening or is occurring in such small steps that it is hard to see.” 

As suggested in earlier studies, the researchers found that children who imitate more through motor imitation, such as encouraging children to join when people are clapping hands, nodding or imitating other gestures, were more likely to obtain spoken language.

“Those nonspeaking prerequisites of communication may help create infrastructure for spoken language,” Vivanti said. “Imitating what others are doing may help may them later to imitate what people are saying, and from there using language to express their thoughts.”

The team observed that the type of intervention used made little difference in language learning outcomes, despite underlying differences between these options in orientation, reasons why they should work and theories about what causes children to develop spoken language.

As this was a retrospective study, methodology varied among interventions, such as using different types of sites, such as a home, in a clinical practice, etc. Additionally, children were followed only for the duration of the intervention.

Despite these limitations, this study fills gaps in the understanding of spoken language status and stands as a rare large-scale commitment to share insights among many autism research institutions on a single study.

“Often scholars are weary about sharing intervention data and examine children who are not showing an optimal response to their interventions, especially for interventions that are already established as ‘evidence-based,’” said Vivanti. “This paper shows a willingness in the early intervention community to collaborate on data and learn more about how to help all children.”

The interventions in the study included the “Early Start Denver Model,” which is designed to help participants grow skills in many areas (including language) by engaging the child in joint play routines; other “Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions,” which similarly embed teaching within the child’s preferred activities and routines; “Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions” that use structured, adult-led teaching practices like discrete trial training, which breaks up skills into smaller parts for better learning; and TEACCH which focuses on changing an environment to adapt to learning preferences.
l.

---

Journal

Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology

DOI

10.1080/15374416.2025.2579286 

We need to listen to the school children tell us what their diagnosed ADHD feels like

 Some people claim that ADHD is a modern invention and that too many people are being diagnosed with it. Others believe the disorder is real, with major consequences for those who have it. Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) professor and school researcher Marit Uthus is certain of at least one thing:

“We need to listen to the school children who can tell us what their diagnosed ADHD feels like, both physically and mentally. After all, they are the ones with first-hand experience. If they are given the chance to speak, the rest of us can better understand what they need in order to learn and participate in school on equal terms with everyone else,” said Uthus.

Autonomy in learning

Along with psychologist and researcher Audhild Løhre, Uthus has recently conducted an interview study focusing on two school children: ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’.

Both students have ADHD. The researchers followed the pupils and their teachers over the course of one school year during which their school introduced a new model for adapted education. Both pupils describe how they experienced gaining an entirely new sense of autonomy. One day a week, they are free to choose what they want to learn and to organize their schoolwork as they think best.

The study is small, but the researchers believe it introduces important and genuine experiences directly into the wider discussion about ADHD and inclusion in Norwegian schools, Uthus said.

An extra challenging form of learning

Because ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’ have inattentive ADHD, autonomous or self-regulated learning can be especially challenging. This type of ADHD triggers precisely those brain processes that are taxing for people with the diagnosis. This includes receiving and processing internal and external stimuli, and maintaining focus and self-regulation.

“Self-determination in learning means acting in accordance with oneself – or one’s own will. And when you become inattentive in your learning – when your thoughts slip beyond your own control – things don’t work. This is precisely where the challenge of self-determined learning lies for these pupils,” explained Uthus.

A double-edged sword

The school researcher describes their situation as a double-edged sword, because like everyone else, both ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’ like to make their own decisions.

Despite the challenges they face, they are motivated by their teacher’s trust and the opportunity to act autonomously in their own learning one day a week.

Thoughts that end up in the wrong place

Sofie describes her experience with ADHD like this:  “(...) it is as if my thoughts wander around in my head and end up in the wrong place. They then start to get all jumbled up in the very place where I should be concentrating. “(..) Once I’ve lost concentration, it’s like I’m in my own world.”

At the same time, the 11-year-old says, “When I get to decide for myself, I feel happy!”

She likes being able to decide what works best for her, such as choosing whether to tackle the hardest or the easiest schoolwork first.

“I want to decide for myself what to do, and it’s nice to be able to do that,” Sofie. said

Lose concentration – find motivation

Everything happens in collaboration with the teacher, but the pupils take the leading role. The starting point is that we all have an innate need to make our own decisions and influence what happens in our lives. When we experience tasks as meaningful and are able to act according to our own wishes and interests, that increases both motivation to learn and effort.

“So, even though ‘Sofie’ experiences her concentration slipping away, she manages to find new energy to keep thinking. In doing so, she compensates for what she loses. She replaces it with motivation to complete a task even when she is tired, finds it difficult or thinks it is boring. She is motivated by the good feeling of completing what she started,” Uthus said.

Harnessing the power of self-determination

Uthus believes that this type of real-life experience brings important new insights and meaningful depth to theories in educational research. If we view self-determination as a power we all have and can use to make learning more enjoyable, we can open up new opportunities for this group of pupils.

The study ‘Students with inattention and their experiences of autonomy in learning activities: an interview study with two students and their teachers’ was recently published in Frontiers in Psychology.

Uthus says the study focuses specifically on a few individuals’ experiences, and one that is worth exploring further.

Children with ADHD struggle at school

Uthus has spent many years studying inclusion in schools. This autumn, a different study from OsloMet found that only about half of children with ADHD thrive at school. Pupils who spend more than half of their school day being taught outside of their regular classroom community particularly tend to struggle.

“I think this is linked to the fact that school is an increasingly pressured environment to grow up in. Adaptation and support provided by teachers regarding pupils’ self-determination is crucial in all of this. Research suggests that these pupils are not receiving the support they need – specifically the support that takes place within the learning community of the classroom,” said Uthus.

ADHD does not mean learning challenges

She emphasizes that these are children with the same abilities and resources as everyone else. They are capable of achieving anything.

“ADHD is not a challenge associated with learning – but rather a challenge associated with attention. Being taken out of the classroom, because there is a lack of support in the classroom, feels like an unfair punishment. I believe it is important to stress that this is not necessarily due to poor teaching, but rather the lack of resources in today’s schools. We could go on endlessly discussing whether too many children are being diagnosed with ADHD, and what the reasons for this might be.  The point is that this debate leads nowhere for the individuals who need help,” explained Uthus.

Missing the point

Uthus believes that the debate around ADHD sometimes goes off track, with arguments over whether the diagnosis is real or socially constructed. She feels we pay too little attention to the experiences of the children and young people actually living with the diagnosis, and that there should be greater focus on how their learning environments are structured.

“Children and young people spend a lot of their waking hours at school. Their time there is a major determinant in how they will fare later on in life: in their future careers, in being part of society and in gaining a better quality of life – and this is why adaptation is so important. It is about engaging with pupils more effectively and getting to know them. Letting them experience that they are good enough as they are and that they are appreciated for all their differences,” said Uthus.

Brains work differently

“We could go on endlessly discussing whether too many children are being diagnosed with ADHD, and what the reasons for this might be.  The point is that this debate leads nowhere for the individuals who need help. If we instead focus on their experiences, it becomes less important whether ADHD is a real diagnosis or not. It is about inequality. We all have brains that work differently, and each of us falls somewhere along that spectrum,” concluded Uthus.

Reference:
Marit Uthus, Audhild Løhre: ‘Students with inattention and their experiences of autonomy in learning activities: an interview study with two students and their teachers’. DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1624279

---

Updated "Treating and Preventing Adolescent Mental Health Disorders"

 Oxford University Press has published the third edition of the award-winning Treating and Preventing Adolescent Mental Health Disorders: What We Know and What We Don’t Know, a wide-ranging overview of the current state of knowledge of major mental health conditions that emerge during adolescence.

Sponsored by the Adolescent Mental Health Initiative, a project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center (APPC) of the University of Pennsylvania and The Annenberg Foundation Trust at Sunnylands, the updated third edition provides a significant expansion of the 2017 second edition, including the context of the Covid-19 pandemic and the latest research in gambling addiction, problematic internet use, and strategies to reduce the stigma of mental health conditions.

The book is available for purchase in hardcover and also as a free, downloadable PDF.

In this new edition, experts in adolescent mental health describe the characteristics and risks of anxiety, depression and bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, substance use, eating disorders, and suicidal behavior, and assess the available treatment and prevention strategies. The updated volume also reviews what we know about positive youth development, a strategy that can prepare adolescents not only to overcome disorders but also to lead fulfilling lives. In each case, the authors suggest a research agenda based on what we do and don’t yet know about these conditions and behaviors.

The book’s concluding chapters discuss overarching issues regarding the treatment and prevention of adolescent mental health disorders, including overcoming the stigma of mental illness, opportunities for delivering evidence-based treatments, and implications for placing the mental health of adolescents at the top of the policy agenda. Integrating the work of eminent scholars in the field of adolescent mental health, this work will serve as an essential resource for mental health professionals and policy makers alike about what will be needed to improve our nation’s response to promoting the well-being of adolescents.

“This comprehensive overview of mental health issues among youth underscores the importance of prevention, early intervention, and targeted treatment, all while addressing gaps in research and advocating for a positive approach to youth development,” writes co-editor Maria A. Oquendo, M.D., Ph.D., chair of the psychiatry department at the University of Pennsylvania’s Perelman School of Medicine. “Addressing these challenges will require concerted efforts across multiple sectors, including healthcare education, and public policy, to improve mental health outcomes for current and future generations.”

In the book’s conclusion, co-editor Dan Romer, Ph.D., APPC’s research director, writes that “mental disorders in adolescents have increased along with the interruption of normal social life during the COVID-19 pandemic.” But he also notes the effects of a prior society-wide upheaval – the U.S financial crisis in 2008-2009, which led to a dramatic increase in financial insecurity, contributing to poor mental health affecting adolescents at the time and afterward. The lagged effects of increased child poverty experienced during the crisis continue to unfold with increases in youth suicide rates and rates of depression. In addition, there are many current societal changes that pose challenges to adolescents’ mental health, including reactions to the emergence of divergent sexual and gender identities, increases in excess weight and unhealthy eating, the threat of climate change, and exploitation by social media platforms.

While much of the discussion around the “mental health crisis in teens” focuses on the overuse of smartphones, adolescent suicide rates in other developed countries have declined in recent years. The United States “lacks a coherent youth development policy,” Romer says, unlike about half of the other OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) member countries. He says, “A national strategy that coordinates treatment and prevention programs to support families will go a long way toward reducing the burden of poor mental and behavioral health in the United States both in youth and later, in adulthood.”

The new volume updates the work of seven commissions in different areas of adolescent mental health convened by the Adolescent Mental Health Initiative under project director Kathleen Hall Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Public Policy Center, for the original volume in 2005. The first edition of “Treating and Preventing Adolescent Mental Health Disorders” received the 2005 Award for Excellence in Clinical Medicine from the Division of Professional/Scholarly Publishing of the Association of American Publishers.

Of the first edition, a reviewer wrote in the Journal of the American Medical Association: “This volume is extraordinarily valuable in synthesizing a great deal of information based predominantly on such tightly controlled studies.” A New England Journal of Medicine reviewer said the book “provides an excellent evidence-based review of each of the topics and manages to weave in clinically important findings that help to keep the information both practical and tangible to the clinician. The review of the data on how to define each disorder, how to treat it, and how to prevent it makes the book one that must be read by anyone involved in the routine care of adolescents. It is a clear and well-written book that should provide an evidence-based approach to the thoughtful care of adolescents, and it should be a ready reference on the shelf of any physician caring for adolescents.”

Montessori preschool boosts learning at a lower cost

 

When the University of Virginia psychologist Angeline Lillard began studying Montessori education more than 20 years ago, she did not expect to find that approach to produced large, measurable differences in children’s development. But a growing body of evidence — capped by a new nationwide study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences — has changed her mind.

“I didn’t believe that this was going to be the outcome,” said Lillard who is the College and Graduate School of Arts & Sciences’ Commonwealth Professor of Psychology, “But I’ve become convinced by the data over time.”

The new research, conducted in partnership with the American Institutes for Research (AIR), and also co-authored by grad student Emily Daggett, a third-year student in UVA’s Department of Psychology, and David Loeb, a fifth-year graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania, is the first randomized,   lottery-based study of public Montessori preschool programs across the United States. The study followed 588 children from age three through the end of kindergarten who had applied to 24 public Montessori schools in Colorado, Connecticut, Maryland, New York, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin, Virginia and the District of Columbia.

A Rigorous, Nationwide Study
“This was the first study to be nationwide, and it’s really rigorous,” Lillard said. “We did not handpick schools; we went to every public Montessori school in the country that admitted children at three by lottery and asked them to participate.”

Using school lotteries allowed the researchers to compare children who won admission to Montessori programs with those who did not, creating a rare opportunity to examine cause-and-effect relationships in early childhood education. The team analyzed the data multiple ways — including both “intention-to-treat” and compliance-based approaches — while controlling for factors such as socioeconomic status, race, gender and home language as well as scores at the start of the study (PK3).

“No matter how we did it, we got a consistent story,” Lillard said.

By the end of kindergarten, children admitted to Montessori programs showed significantly stronger outcomes in reading, short-term memory, social understanding, and executive function — which includes skills like planning, attention control, problem solving and self-regulation. Math outcomes also showed positive trends in most analytic models.

What stood out to David Loeb, the study’s lead quantitative analyst, was the strength of the findings.

“Because of the rigor of the study, they’re definitely the strongest findings to date on the effectiveness of Montessori education,” said Loeb, who conducted the analysis as an Institute of Education Sciences predoctoral fellow while completing his Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania.

Loeb said the scale of the study posed substantial challenges, from managing data collected across four waves to addressing missing information — an issue common in large, longitudinal studies of young children. The research team used advanced statistical techniques, including multiple imputation and extensive sensitivity analyses, to test whether alternative explanations could account for the results.

“Really none of them seemed to have any sort of meaningful impact,” Loeb said. “There just wasn’t much evidence that these other factors were likely to explain what we found.”

Stronger Outcomes at Lower Cost
In addition to academic and developmental outcomes, the researchers at AIR conducted a comprehensive cost analysis comparing Montessori and conventional public preschool programs.

“Over three years, every child in Montessori versus in conventional preschool costs their districts, on average, $13,127 less,” Lillard said.

The savings are driven largely by Montessori’s mixed-age classrooms and greater reliance on peer learning, particularly for 3- and 4-year-olds. Lillard emphasized that lower cost does not mean lower quality.

“Montessori intentionally has higher student:teacher ratios at ages three and four, and the materials support the learning,” she said.

Looking Ahead
With the largest Montessori lottery study to date now complete, Lillard and her collaborators are focused on what comes next.

“One thing we really want to know is what happens as they go on,” she said, noting plans to examine outcomes as children move into later elementary grades.

Loeb agrees the findings raise important new questions.

“We found that the effects didn’t really emerge until the end of kindergarten, which is a very different pattern than most preschool studies,” he said. “Understanding why that happens could tell us a lot about how the Montessori model influences development.”

For Lillard, the accumulation of evidence has shifted the broader conversation about early childhood education.

“You’ve got to start paying attention at one point,” she said. “The data — not just mine, but what other people are finding as well — are becoming really convincing.”

---

Journal

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

DOI

10.1073/pnas.2506130122 

Recycled tire Rubber used in playgrounds and sports fields may release toxic chemicals,

 Recycled rubber made from used car tires is widely promoted as a sustainable solution for playground surfaces, sports fields, and running tracks. However, new research suggests that this popular material may release harmful chemicals into the environment, particularly when the rubber is broken into fine particles.

In a study published in Environmental and Biogeochemical Processes, researchers examined recycled tire rubber granulate of different particle sizes and found high levels of toxic compounds known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs. These substances are linked to cancer and other health risks and can persist in soil and water for long periods.

The research team analyzed rubber granulate derived from end of life vehicle tires, focusing on three commonly used particle sizes. They measured both the total amount of PAHs in the material and the fraction that is bioavailable, meaning the portion that can dissolve in water and be taken up by living organisms. To understand real world impacts, the scientists combined chemical measurements with biological toxicity tests using plants, soil invertebrates, and aquatic bacteria.

“Our results show that recycled tire rubber contains very high concentrations of PAHs, especially in the smallest particle sizes,” said Patryk Oleszczuk, the study’s corresponding author. “These fine particles are more reactive and release a greater share of toxic compounds into water and soil, increasing the risk to ecosystems and potentially to human health.”

The study found that total PAH concentrations ranged from 49 to 108 milligrams per kilogram, depending on particle size. Smaller granules consistently contained more PAHs than larger ones. Even more concerning, the bioavailable fraction of these chemicals was also highest in fine particles, reaching levels higher than those typically found in many contaminated soils and sediments.

To evaluate toxicity, the researchers exposed springtails, a soil dwelling invertebrate, garden cress plants, and bioluminescent marine bacteria to both solid rubber granulate and its water leachates. All tested organisms showed adverse effects. While larger rubber particles caused less harm, the smallest granules significantly reduced survival, growth, or biological activity across multiple tests.

“Chemical data alone do not tell the whole story,” said Oleszczuk. “By combining chemical analysis with ecotoxicological tests, we were able to demonstrate that the compounds released from rubber granulate are not just present, but biologically active and harmful.”

The study also detected potentially toxic metals such as zinc and copper in water extracts from the rubber granulate. In some cases, metal concentrations exceeded drinking water guidelines, further contributing to the observed toxicity.

Recycled tire rubber is often used in places where people, especially children, come into direct contact with the material. Over time, weathering from sunlight, heat, and moisture can further break down rubber particles, potentially increasing the release of hazardous substances.

“Our findings suggest that the environmental safety of tire derived rubber depends strongly on particle size,” Oleszczuk said. “Fine granulates pose a disproportionate risk and should be carefully regulated, particularly in public spaces like playgrounds and sports facilities.”

The authors emphasize that recycling tires remains an important environmental goal, but caution that not all recycled materials are inherently safe. They call for the development of size specific regulations, long term monitoring, and safer alternatives to ensure that recycled rubber can be used without unintended harm to ecosystems or public health.

“This study highlights the need to rethink how recycled materials are evaluated and applied,” Oleszczuk said. “Sustainability should not come at the expense of environmental or human safety.”

Less than half of parents say swearing is never OK for kids

 Friends and classmates, not parents, cited as the top source of swear words

Today’s parents may be growing more relaxed about their children using curse words, according to a national poll.

Only about half of parents say children should never swear, even as many acknowledge that their own kids sometimes do, according to the University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s Health.

Meanwhile, more than a third of parents say whether it’s acceptable depends on the situation, while fewer say it depends on the specific word being used or that swearing is not a big deal.

At the same time, one in four parents say their child uses curse words at least occasionally, including nearly four in 10 parents of teens.

“Parents are navigating a gray area when it comes to language,” said Mott Poll Co-Director Sarah Clark, M.D.H. “Many don’t love hearing these words, but they also recognize that context, age and intent matter.”

The nationally representative report is based on responses from 1,678 parents with at least one child ages 6–17, surveyed in August 2025.

Peers play a major role

When asked where children learn profanity, two in three parents pointed to friends or classmates, making peers the most commonly cited source.

Popular media followed closely, while many parents also acknowledged that children hear adult language at home, including from parents themselves.

About one in three parents believe their child swears to fit in, highlighting the role of social pressure, particularly during adolescence.

Parents of teens were more likely to say the behavior is about fitting in, while parents of younger children more often attributed it to trying to be funny or to get attention.

Some children may also use strong language to express negative emotions, Clark says, which may signal a need for help naming and managing anger or frustration in more appropriate ways.

“Swearing can be a form of social currency for kids,” Clark said. “For some, it’s about belonging. For others, it’s about getting a reaction. Understanding the ‘why’ can help parents respond more effectively.”

Parents set rules but enforcement varies

Parents who object to children using curse words likely have a variety of reasons, Clark notes. Some view it through a religious lens, believing certain words conflict with their beliefs.

Others see it as a manners issue, she says, worrying that harsh language is rude or disrespectful. For these parents, context matters: such language might be off-limits at school or in public, for example, but less of a concern when kids are with friends.

Most parents say they feel responsible for their child’s word choices, yet responses vary widely. When their child swears, parents most often say they tell them to stop or explain why they dislike it. Fewer say they ignore it, and only a small number rely on punishment.

Parents of teens are more likely than parents of younger children to ignore it altogether.

“It can be challenging for parents to maintain a consistent approach to swearing,” Clark said. “Parents should sort through their own attitudes to determine which words and situations will merit a response. Young children may not realize certain terms are inappropriate, so parents may need to explain meaning, context or social impact to build understanding and empathy.”

To limit exposure, parents report watching their own language, restricting certain media and asking others to respect household rules.

About one in five parents also discourage friendships with children who frequently swear, suggesting concerns that go beyond language alone.

“These findings show that swearing isn’t just a discipline issue,” Clark said. “It’s tied to peer relationships, family norms and how parents want to guide behavior without overreacting.”